Sustainable Development Goal 6 and the Prophetic Guidance on Water: A Hadīth-Based Framework

1. INTRODUCTION

The relationship between humanity and the environment has long been dependent on society and its social culture. Likewise, Islamic traditional values in light of the Qurʾān and Sunnah always provide us with clear guidelines to maintain not only moral but also ethical and natural values in order to be a responsible citizen. Thus, stressing nature and natural balance, Islam aims to govern society in environmental aspects by maintaining natural ethical values. The Qurʾānic teachings have always promoted maintaining a balance and management in daily life aspects. Accordingly, the Qurʾān and Sunnah guide us to maintain earthly resources to avoid reckless use of the natural blessings of Allah.¹ In light of this discussion, the contemporary issue of water scarcity represents a critical challenge of the twenty-first century.² A significant portion of the global population currently lacks access to clean drinking water, and this number is projected to rise without decisive intervention, particularly as climate variability escalates in the lead-up to the 2030 target for the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG#6): “Ensuring availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.”³ Previous research has indicated that the holistic approach is interconnected with the natural world, emphasising that resources must be utilised in a way that never harms the environment. The urgency surrounding this issue underscores the central importance of SDG#6, not confined to global public welfare but also within academic discourses across environmental governance, development studies, and comparative religious ethics. These disciplines collectively endeavour to identify and promote equitable, efficient, and ecologically sustainable approaches to water resource management. ⁴

Within the field of Islamic studies, an emerging corpus of “eco-fiqh” scholarship posits that the Qurʾānic text and Prophetic traditions offer a substantive foundation of environmental principles. The Qurʾān emphasises the principle of moderation, advocating a sustainable approach for the consumption of natural resources. Nevertheless, most Islamic-environmental studies remain confined to ethical appeals only, highlighting general values of stewardship and conservation. However, none has undertaken a target-level, indicator-specific mapping of Prophetic traditions directly aligned with the SDG#6 (Clean Water and Sanitation) framework. This absence leaves a critical gap at the intersection of Islamic ethics and global development policy, especially concerning water governance. This article addresses that gap by offering the first systematic alignment of water-related Hadīths with SDG#6 targets and indicators, providing a framework for faith-sensitive water governance.

By analyzing water-related Hadīths thematically, this paper links each theme to the relevant SDG #6 targets. The study further aims to demonstrate that the Prophetic teachings supply a coherent ethical framework that can complement, and potentially strengthen, contemporary water-governance instruments.

Accordingly, this study is guided by two central research questions:

• What ethical and environmental principles about water do the Prophetic traditions (ḥadīth) articulate?
• How do these principles align with the specific targets and indicators of SDG#6?

To answer these questions, a qualitative textual methodology was employed. Canonical Sunni compilations — Sahih al-Bukhari, Sahih Muslim, Sunan Abu Dawud, Sunan Ibn Majah, and Jamiʿ at-Tirmidhi — are systematically screened for water-related narrations. Identified Hadīths are coded into themes (access, conservation, pollution prevention, sanitation, ecosystem care) and then mapped to SDG 6 targets, with cross-validation against United Nations indicator definitions. This design ensures that religious texts are interpreted in context while remaining commensurable with development metrics.

The significance of the research lies in its potential to bridge Islamic ethical capital with policy practice: by translating centuries-old teachings into SDG language, the study offers policymakers, educators, and faith leaders a culturally resonant toolkit for advancing water sustainability.

The paper proceeds as follows. Section 2 reviews Islamic environmental ethics and the current interdisciplinary literature on religion and sustainable development, highlighting existing gaps. Section 3 details the methodology. Section 4 presents the thematic results and SDG mapping. Section 5 discusses the broader implications for water governance and outlines limitations. Section 6 concludes with recommendations and directions for future research.

2. Methodology

This study follows a qualitative thematic approach to understand various dimensions of the selected themes. This exploratory approach was useful in aligning the selected themes with the prophetic teachings. Figure 1 below illustrates the methodology adopted to conduct this study, outlining a systematic process for selecting, analysing, and aligning Prophetic water-related traditions with the specific targets of Sustainable Development Goals (SDG#6).

Figure 1. Research Methodology

The study adopts a qualitative textual analysis approach, primarily drawing upon canonical Hadīth compilations recognized across the Sunni Islamic tradition. The selected sources include:

• Sahih al-Bukhari
• Sahih Muslim
• Sunan Ibn Majah
• Sunan Abu Dawud, and
• Jami‘ at-Tirmidhi

These collections were chosen for their authenticity, comprehensive scope, and established status within Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) and ethical discourse. Within these sources, Hadīths explicitly or implicitly referencing water use, access, sanitation, hygiene, and environmental stewardship were identified. Researchers reviewed both Arabic texts and authenticated English translations to ensure accurate interpretation and context of these selected Hadīths.

A qualitative thematic analysis was employed to extract recurring patterns and ethical instructions related to water from the selected Hadīths. The steps included:

• Identification: Each Hadīth containing water-related guidance (e.g., on cleanliness, conservation, access, pollution) was collected and catalogued.
• Coding: Content was coded manually using predefined themes, such as water access and equity, conservation and efficiency, pollution prevention, ritual hygiene, and ecosystem protection.
• Clustering: The Hadīths were grouped into thematic clusters to reflect their conceptual emphasis. These clusters were not mutually exclusive but reflected overlapping ethical domains relevant to sustainable water governance.
• Validation: Clusters were reviewed for consistency and comprehensiveness, ensuring that each Hadīth was placed based on both textual meaning and jurisprudential context.

The initial corpus comprised 2,241 narrations related to water, sanitation, and cleanliness across the five canonical Sunni Hadīth compilations. From this set, 787 narrations were identified and recorded in both Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī and Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (without repetition). Applying the inclusion criteria further refined the corpus to 183 narrations, specifically those offering explicit or implicit normative guidance on water allocation, usage, pollution prevention, sanitation, or ecological care. Purely descriptive reports (e.g., narrations noting the Prophet’s personal preference without broader ethical instruction) or with weak/unauthenticated chains were excluded. This process resulted in a final dataset of 27 rigorously authenticated narrations.

The five thematic clusters—access and equity, conservation and efficiency, pollution prevention, sanitation and hygiene, and ecosystem care were derived inductively but are also consistent with both Islamic jurisprudential categories (fiqh al-ʿibādāt and fiqh al-muʿāmalāt) and contemporary water governance frameworks. For example, conservation and efficiency emerged from narrations that prescribe moderation in ablution, which directly align with SDG#6.4. As an illustration of the coding process, the narration “Do not withhold surplus water so that pasture may not be withheld” (Sahih al-Bukhari 2353) was first coded under “access and equity,” then mapped to SDG Target 6.1 (universal access). This stepwise coding ensured consistency across narrations and transparency for interdisciplinary readers.

This method ensured that the ethical content was not decontextualized from its religious significance, while allowing for systematic alignment with sustainability goals.

To bridge the gap between traditional Islamic teachings and modern development frameworks, the thematic Hadīth clusters were mapped to specific targets within SDG#6 (Clean Water and Sanitation). The mapping relied on:

• Target-level analysis of SDG#6 as outlined by the United Nations (e.g., 6.1 for universal access, 6.2 for sanitation, 6.3 for water quality).
• Conceptual alignment between the ethical implications of Hadīth teachings and the intended outcomes of the SDG targets.
• Cross-referencing with SDG indicator descriptions to ensure relevance (e.g., linking Hadīths about preventing contamination of water with SDG Target 6.3 on improving water quality).

Each Hadīth was matched to one or more SDG targets based on its underlying moral directive and social function. This integrative approach illustrates how Islamic ethical teachings can provide complementary insights to contemporary water governance and sustainability policies.

3. Results and Thematic Analysis

This section organises the 27 water-related ḥadīth into thematic clusters—each linked to a specific SDG#6 target on “Clean Water and Sanitation”—and analyses the ethical principles they convey in light of contemporary sustainability frameworks (for the full corpus, including Arabic incipits, English translations, source details, and URLs, see Table 1).

Table 1. Ḥadīth Corpus on Water Aligned with SDG#6

The prophetic teachings strongly emphasize the communal right to water and the immorality of monopolizing surplus water resources. Several Hadīths from Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim explicitly prohibit withholding excess water, particularly in contexts where it impedes access to pasture or harms travellers in need.

• Sahih al-Bukhari 2353 / 6962: “Do not withhold surplus water, for doing so prevents people from grazing their livestock.”
• Sahih Muslim 1566a–c: “Do not withhold excess water, lest it prevent the growth of vegetation.”
• Sahih al-Bukhari 2358: “Among the three whom Allah will neither look at nor purify on the Day of Judgment is the man who has surplus water on the road but withholds it from a traveller in need.”

These teachings align directly with SDG 6.1, which advocates for equitable access to safe and affordable water for all, and SDG 6.b, which promotes inclusive, community-based water management.

Moreover, Sunan Ibn Majah 2472 narrates: “Muslims are partners in three things: water, pasture, and fire. Their price is unlawful.”

This Hadīth reinforces the principle of shared water rights and aligns closely with SDG 6.5, which emphasizes integrated and participatory approaches to water resources.

Islamic teachings advocate moderation, particularly in water usage during purification rituals. The Prophet Muhammad emphasized this principle in several Hadīths:

• Sunan Ibn Majah 425: The Prophet saw Sa'd using a lot of water for ablution and said: “What is this extravagance?” Sa'd asked: “Can there be extravagance in ablution?” He replied: “Yes, even if you are on the bank of a flowing river.”
• Sunan Ibn Majah 424: “Do not be extravagant in using water,” the Prophet repeated twice upon seeing a man performing ablution.
• Sahih Muslim 326a: “The Prophet used one Sā‘a of water for ghusl and one Mudd for ablution.”

These Hadīths support SDG#6.4, which focuses on increasing water-use efficiency and sustainable withdrawals.

The Prophet Muhammad strictly prohibited actions that contaminate water sources:

• Sahih al-Bukhari 239 / Sahih Muslim 281, 282a: “Do not urinate in stagnant water and then wash in it.”
• Sahih Muslim 283: “Do not perform ghusl in standing water while in a state of major impurity.”
• Sunan Abu Dawud 26: “Beware of the three things that bring about curses: defecating at water sources, on pathways, and under shade.”
• Sahih Muslim 279a: “When a dog licks a utensil, it must be washed seven times.”

These narrations align with SDG#6.3, which aims to improve water quality by reducing pollution, and SDG#6.2, which advocates for sanitation and hygiene.

Several Hadīths provide practical guidelines on sanitation and the correct use of water during purification:

• Sahih Muslim 321a: A’isha (RA) reported: “The Messenger of Allah and I used to perform ghusl together from a single container, taking water by the handful.”
• Sahih Muslim 282a, 283: Emphasize hygienic practices during ghusl and warn against direct contact with stagnant water.

These practices reflect the values of SDG 6.2 (safe sanitation and hygiene) and SDG 6.4 (water-use efficiency).

The prophetic tradition promotes compassion toward animals and consideration for the broader ecosystem.

• Sahih al-Bukhari 2363: “A man gave water to a thirsty dog and Allah forgave him for that act.”
• Sahih al-Bukhari 3321: “A sinful woman was forgiven because she drew water for a thirsty dog near a well.”
• Sahih al-Bukhari 2378: “It is one of the rights of a she-camel that it be milked at the water source.”

4.strong Discussion

The aforementioned arguments provide an elaborated discussion, which interprets the thematic results through the analytical lens of SDG#6, thereby demonstrating how Prophetic water ethics can be operationalised to advance each of the goal’s constituent targets. Whereas previous scholarship has recognised broad affinities between Islamic teachings and environmental stewardship, few studies have pursued a target-specific correspondence that moves beyond descriptive comparisons toward actionable implementation strategies. By locating individual ḥadīth narrations within the SDG#6 indicator architecture, this study contributes a rigorously mapped ethically governed framework that can inform contemporary water-governance regimes in Muslim-majority contexts and, by extension, in any setting where Islamic social capital exerts influence on collective behaviour.

Prophetic directives forbidding the monopolisation of “surplus” (faḍl) water articulate a normative entitlement that closely parallels the human-rights vocabulary embedded in Target 6.1. The report of Abū Hurayra, “Do not withhold surplus water so that pasture may not be withheld” that explicitly links physical access to socio-economic wellbeing, underscoring the interdependence between water availability and livelihood security. Contemporary human-rights jurisprudence, which frames potable water as a prerequisite for the enjoyment of other rights, thus finds an antecedent in these narrations.

Operationally, the Prophetic ban on pricing life-sustaining volumes of water, “Muslims are partners in water, pasture, and fire; their price is unlawful,” may be interpreted as a call for a “lifeline” tariff structure in which a basic quantity of safe water is provided at minimal or no cost. Empirical evaluations of pro-poor blocks in Jordan and Morocco indicate that lifeline subsidies, when paired with volumetric tariffs for higher use tiers, enhance indicator 6.1.1 without jeopardising cost recovery. Framing such policies via authoritative Islamic jurisprudence could increase public acceptability and compliance, particularly where scepticism toward state-imposed tariffs persists.

At the institutional level, a Sharīʿah-compliant ombudsman system, analogous to the historical muḥtasib, could adjudicate access disputes and monitor equity outcomes, thereby augmenting state regulatory capacity while drawing legitimacy from religious tradition. The integration of Prophetic ethics into statutory water laws thus represents both a normative alignment and a pragmatic governance innovation.

Canonical narrations regarding ritual purity extend beyond strictly spiritual domains to encompass public-health foresight. The prohibition of defecation at water sources, thoroughfares, and shaded communal areas, “Beware of three matters that provoke cursing…” pre-empts pathogen transmission along what contemporary epidemiology terms the faecal–oral pathway. Similarly, the injunction against urinating in stagnant water anticipates modern hygienic standards for source protection.

These ḥadīth, therefore, provide contextually salient content for Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) initiatives, which depend on locally embedded social norms and peer enforcement rather than hierarchical regulation. In parallel, the Prophetic practice of completing ghusl with one sāʿ (≈ 2.5 L) and wuḍūʾ with one mudd (≈ 0.6 L) sets a clear behavioural benchmark for water-efficient hygiene, demonstrating that rigorous cleanliness can be achieved without compromising resource conservation.

Several narrations prescribe behavioural restrictions that align with water-quality management under Target 6.3. The command to discard the contents of, and to wash seven times, a utensil licked by a dog reflects an implicit germ theory by acknowledging the risk of zoonotic contamination. More importantly, the prohibition against polluting standing water establishes an ethical category of “water misuse” that modern environmental law characterises as point-source pollution.

Translating these norms into policy might entail Sharīʿah-compliant certification schemes whereby industrial enterprises secure a religiously grounded environmental seal only if effluent standards—and thus indicator 6.3.1—are met. Analogous programmes in Indonesia’s halal-industrial parks suggest that religious branding can mobilise consumer pressure to exceed baseline regulatory requirements. Municipally, mosque committees could be enlisted to monitor informal wastewater discharge in peri-urban settlements, providing low-cost data for local authorities.

Efficiency themes permeate ḥadīth literature. The Prophet’s reprimand of Saʿd for excessive use, “Isrāf, even if beside a flowing river”²⁹ discredits the assumption that abundance legitimises waste. This insight is crucial for Gulf Cooperation Council states, where high per capita consumption coexists with capital-intensive desalination. These findings support the argument that faith-aligned behavioural cues can complement technological solutions, achieving efficiency gains unattainable by engineering measures alone.

The communal orientation of the water-related ḥadīth, particularly the compound nexus of water, pasture, and fire, provides normative support for basin-level cooperation—an essential component of IWRM.³⁰ By explicitly linking water access to grazing rights, the Prophet Muhammad anticipates the modern concept of socio-ecological linkages within a catchment.

Historically, Sharīʿah courts functioned as fora for resolving irrigation disputes; their procedures emphasised equitable rotation and maintenance obligations. Revived as multi-stakeholder “Water Ethics Panels,” such institutions could deliberatively align customary practice with hydrological science, thereby raising a country’s IWRM index (indicator 6.5.1). Importantly, the panels’ legitimacy would derive from both technical expertise and religious authority, mitigating the enforcement gap that often plagues statutory regulation in rural areas.

Narratives that celebrate mercy toward animals—culminating in divine forgiveness granted individuals who quenched the thirst of a dog by extending moral consideration beyond human beneficiaries. Combined with injunctions recognising livestock drinking rights, these reports endorse an ecocentric ethic congruent with Target 6.6.

The spatial prescription of a forty-cubit easement around wells further illustrates an early awareness of riparian-buffer functions. Codifying such easements in contemporary land-use plans can protect recharge zones and wetland margins, thus supporting indicator 6.6.1 (change in the extent of water-related ecosystems). Financially, the waqf model—exemplified by ʿUthmān’s endowment of the Well of Rūmah offers a precedent for trust-fund mechanisms dedicated to habitat restoration, merging theological reward with ecological benefit.

The strategic relevance of Islamic endowments (awqāf) for financing transboundary water projects positions the Prophetic tradition as a catalyst for Target 6.a. Sukūk (Islamic bonds) structured as “water waqf” could channel Gulf philanthropic capital into sanitation infrastructure in lower-income Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) states, aligning faith-based charity with SDG finance.

Concurrently, the participatory ethos embedded in the phrase “Muslims are partners” undergirds Target 6.b, which emphasises local engagement in water management.

Implementing prophetic teachings can yield positive cross-target synergies, yet unintended trade-offs remain possible. Large-scale desalination, while improving access (Target 6.1), raises brine-discharge challenges that threaten coastal ecosystems (Target 6.6). The moderation norm implicit in anti-isrāf ḥadīth tempers demand, thereby reducing reliance on high-energy supply augmentation. A maqāṣid al-sharīʿah lens—prioritising the preservation of life, intellect, progeny, property, and faith—offers a principled method for adjudicating such trade-offs, ensuring that interventions respect the holistic intent of Islamic law while satisfying SDG metrics.

Although this study underscores how prophetic guidance could improve water governance, we must acknowledge several limitations. Firstly, varying assessments of ḥadīth authenticity across Islamic schools may affect the universal acceptance of specific narrations, making cross-sectarian application complex. Secondly, there is a risk of selective use of religious texts, where policymakers or institutions emphasize certain narrations to legitimize predetermined agendas rather than upholding the holistic Prophetic ethic. Finally, integrating fiqh-based ethical principles into global governance frameworks presenting practical challenges, including reconciling religiously grounded directives with secular policy instruments and ensuring compatibility with diverse cultural and legal contexts. Recognizing these risks is essential for balanced application and underscores the need for further interdisciplinary dialogue.

This study contributes academically by offering the first systematic mapping of water-related Prophetic traditions (ḥadīth) to each target and indicator of SDG#6 and its sub-indicators. By moving beyond general ethical reflections to target-level alignment, it demonstrates that Islamic sources provide not only moral guidance but also a coherent framework commensurable with contemporary sustainability metrics.

The findings also carry practical significance for water governance. The study showcased that by embedding SDG#6 objectives within Prophetic ethics can enhance legitimacy, strengthen cultural resonance, and mobilise religious institutions as partners in sustainability initiatives. This faith-sensitive approach can support policy instruments ranging from lifeline tariffs and sanitation campaigns to conservation measures and ecosystem protection, thereby bridging global development agendas with locally embedded values.

Future research can extend this foundation in three directions. Firstly, researchers need empirical studies to assess whether Hadīth-based messaging produces measurable changes in water-use behaviour and sanitation practices. Secondly, further exploration of cross-sectarian jurisprudence would broaden applicability across diverse Muslim communities. Thirdly, comparative analysis with other faith traditions could enrich interfaith dialogue on sustainability, highlighting common ethical resources for global water governance. Together, these directions ensure that the normative insights of this study are tested, expanded, and translated into inclusive strategies for advancing SDG#6.

Authors’ Contribution

Fatima Zohra Aouati: conceptualization, methodology, validation, formal analysis, investigation, resources, data curation, writing - original draft, writing -review & editing, visualization, supervision. Khaled Obaideen: conceptualization, methodology, validation, formal analysis, data curation, writing - original draft, writing review & editing, visualization.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Data Availability Statement

Data availability statement is not applicable as no new data has been collected.

Funding Details

This research did not receive funding from any external source.

Generative AI Disclosure Statement

The authors did not used any type of generative artificial intelligence software for this research.