Uzair Amjad*
School of Social Sciences, Monash University, Australia
*Corresponding Author: [email protected]
This article provides a comprehensive analysis of the impact of armed conflict on the lives of women in Kashmir, using a sociological perspective. It examines how women are affected by the conflict, exploring their experiences of violence, displacement, and loss. The study draws on existing literature, personal narratives, and interviews with women in the region to share insights into the gendered dimensions of the conflict. The article argues that an understanding of women's experiences is crucial for developing effective peacebuilding strategies that address the needs of all members of society. The Kashmir conflict, a protracted and enduring conflict in South Asia, has led to significant violence, displacement, and loss of life, particularly affecting women in the region. The conflict has taken various forms, including armed insurgency, terrorism, state violence and house arrests. Women in Kashmir face unique challenges, including restrictions on mobility, limited access to healthcare and education, and gender-based violence. Despite numerous attempts at peace talks, the conflict remains unresolved, creating a climate of fear and mistrust. This article contributes to the existing literature by providing a comprehensive analysis of the impact of armed conflict on women in Kashmir. It highlights the need for adopting gender-sensitive peacebuilding strategies that prioritize the needs and perspectives of women. The findings emphasize the importance of integrating women's voices and perspectives in all aspects of the peacebuilding process to build sustainable peace in Kashmir.
Keywords: Armed conflict, women, Kashmir, violence, displacement, loss, peacebuilding strategies
The Kashmir conflict, a festering wound in South Asia's heart, has plagued the region since 1947, when India and Pakistan gained independence from British rule. Driven by competing claims for self-determination and territorial control, the conflict has morphed into a complex and volatile tapestry of armed insurgency, state violence, and enduring tensions between India and Pakistan (Chari et al., 2009). While its impact on the region has been profound, the enduring scars borne by Kashmiri women are often relegated to the periphery of the narrative. This article, through a sociological lens, seeks to illuminate the gendered dimensions of the conflict by exploring its multifaceted impact on women's lives.
Beyond the statistics of violence, displacement, and loss Tai et al. (2022), the conflict's shadow has permeated the very fabric of Kashmiri society, casting a long and chilling darkness on women's lives. Reports of sexual violence, enforced disappearances, and the trauma of living under constant fear are tragically commonplace (Ahanger, 2019). Disrupted social structures and economic hardship have further marginalized women, forcing them to navigate a treacherous landscape of vulnerability and resilience.
This article aims to achieve two objectives: Firstly, it delves into the women experience during the conflict, focusing on the physical and psychological scars of violence, the challenges of displacement, loss, and the reconfiguration of their social and economic roles. Secondly, it argues that understanding these gendered experiences is critical for developing effective peacebuilding strategies in Kashmir. This article critically examines the experiences of women during conflict in Kashmir. It explores the physical and psychological impact of violence, the challenges of displacement, loss, and the reconfiguration of women's social and economic roles. The article contends that grasping these gender-specific experiences is crucial for devising effective peacebuilding strategies. It argues for a shift away from superficial solutions towards a holistic approach that promotes genuine inclusivity and justice. By acknowledging the unique needs and challenges faced by women, the article proposes that peacebuilding efforts must move beyond superficial solutions and embrace a holistic approach that fosters genuine inclusivity and justice.
The following sections will unfold in a structured manner. The first section will critically analyze the existing literature on the impact of conflict on women's lives, drawing upon relevant sociological theories and frameworks. The methodology section will detail the research methods employed, including personal narratives and interviews with Kashmiri women. The findings section will then dissect the intricate ways in which the conflict has impacted women's lives, examining socio-economic transformation. The discussion section will bridge the gap between these experiences and their implications for peacebuilding in Kashmir, highlighting the need for gender-sensitive approaches. Finally, the conclusion will summarize the key takeaways of the article and propose avenues for further research.
By shedding light on the often-unheard stories of Kashmiri women, this article envisages to contribute to a deeper understanding of the conflict's human cost and inspire an inclusive approach to peacebuilding in the region. Only by acknowledging the full spectrum of suffering and seeking solutions that empower all members of society, can Kashmir truly emerge from the shadow of conflict and forge a brighter future.
This study is guided by several key sociological theoretical perspectives that help to illuminate the gendered dimensions of armed conflict and its impact on women in Kashmir. Drawing on feminist theory, particularly the work of Cynthia Enloe (2007) and Chinkin (2004), this study recognizes the importance of understanding conflict from a gender perspective, which highlights how conflict shapes gender relations in society. Additionally, this study is informed by intersectionality theory (Crenshaw, 1989), which emphasizes the intersecting nature of social categories such as gender, class, and ethnicity, and how these intersecting identities influence individuals' experiences and vulnerabilities during conflict.
Furthermore, this study is influenced by the concept of social death (Kralova, 2015), which explores how conflict can strip individuals, particularly women, of their social identities, rights, and agency, leading to profound psychological and social impacts. By integrating these theoretical perspectives, this study seeks to provide an understanding of the gendered impacts of armed conflict in Kashmir and contribute to the development of more effective peacebuilding strategies that address the specific needs and experiences of women in conflict-affected areas.
The brutal tapestry of conflict casts a long shadow, its threads woven with the suffering of individuals and societies. Its grip tightens around women, shaping their lives with a unique brand of violence and displacement (Enloe, 2007; Turshen, 2000). Yet, their stories often remain untold, their experiences obscured by the larger narrative of war. This article aims to illuminate the gendered dimensions of the conflict and its devastating impact on their world, particularly on the lives of Kashmiri women.
Sociological research underscores the crucial need to integrate gendered experiences into conflict analysis and peacebuilding strategies (Chinkin, 2004; Karam, 2012). Women's lives in conflict zones are shaped by a complex interplay of cultural expectations, economic realities, and political structures (Duffy, 2014; Johnson, 2013; Usta & Moukarzel, 2008). As caregivers and community builders, they often bear the brunt of the conflict, facing both direct violence and the silent gnawing of poverty, trauma, and fractured social networks (Dyregrov et al., 2000; Karam, 2012; Pankhurst, 2008).
While the spectre of sexual violence against women looms large in the literature, it overshadows other forms of loss and suffering, such as displacement and economic devastation (Megerisi & Tripp, 2016; Turshen, 2000). Displacement, in particular, unleashes a new wave of gendered challenges for women and girls. They face heightened risks of sexual and gender-based violence, inaccessibility to healthcare, education, and livelihoods (Cuttitta, 2018; Krause & Muggah, 2019). This marginalization, further amplified in conflict-stricken areas, traps them in a cycle of vulnerability and despair (Krause & Muggah, 2019).
Research on the gendered dimensions of conflict in Kashmir is limited yet speaks volumes (Rehman, 2015). Kashmiri women navigate to a labyrinth of restrictions on mobility, access to healthcare, education, and economic opportunities, all within the shadow of conflict (Kazi, 2014; Saba, 2017). Both state and non-state actors have targeted them with sexual and gender-based violence, leaving indelible scars on their lives (Amnesty International, 2019; Human Rights Watch, 2018). Despite the gaps in research, the existing evidence paints a stark picture: the gendered experiences of conflict in Kashmir are undeniable and demand urgent attention. This article aims to bridge the gap by providing a comprehensive analysis of the impact of armed conflict on the lives of Kashmiri women, their untold stories, and the crucial need for their voices to be heard in the quest for peace and justice.
This article draws on existing literature, personal narratives, and interviews with women in Kashmir to provide a comprehensive analysis of the impact of armed conflict on their lives. The primary research method used in this study is qualitative interviews, which allowed for an in-depth exploration of women's experiences and perspectives. The sample for this study consisted of 20 women who have lived in conflict-affected areas of Kashmir for at least five years. Participants were recruited through a snowball sampling method (add reference here pl), in which initial participants identified and referred potential participants who met the study's inclusion criteria. Informed consent was obtained from all participants, and they were assured of anonymity and confidentiality.
The semi-structured interviews were conducted in Urdu and Kashmiri, and lasted between 60 to 90 minutes. The interviews covered a range of topics related to women's experiences of conflict, including violence, displacement, loss, access to healthcare and education, economic opportunities, and their perceptions of peacebuilding strategies. The interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim for analysis. The data were analyzed thematically to identify key patterns, themes, and meanings in the participants' narratives. The analysis involved a process of coding, categorizing, and synthesizing the data, to generate a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the impact of conflict on women's lives in Kashmir.
While the sample size for this study is relatively small, the focus on in-depth qualitative interviews allowed for a rich and nuanced exploration of women's experiences, perspectives, and voices. The findings of this study provide important insights into the gendered dimensions of conflict in Kashmir and highlight the need for gender-sensitive peacebuilding strategies that address the specific needs and challenges faced by women in conflict-affected areas.
The findings of this study are organized into four main themes, which reflect the ways in which the armed conflict has affected the lives of women in Kashmir: violence and trauma, displacement and mobility, loss and grief, and challenges to gender equality.
Many of the women in this study reported experiencing or witnessing different forms of violence, including physical, sexual, and psychological abuse. They described how the threat of violence and the fear of insecurity have become a constant part of their daily lives, and how this has affected their mental health and well-being. Women who had lost family members to violence expressed feelings of grief, anger, and helplessness, as narrated by a woman: “I never know if I will make it through the day alive. It's a constant fear that never leaves me”. This quote reflects the lived experiences of Kashmiri women, who are affected by the ongoing armed conflict in the region. It highlights the ways in which the conflict has created a pervasive sense of insecurity and uncertainty that shapes the everyday lives of women and their families. The conflict has disrupted social institutions and created a breakdown of social order, leading to a sense of chaos and unpredictability. This, in turn, has led to a feeling of constant fear and anxiety among Kashmiri women, who face the risk of being caught in the crossfire, subjected to violence, or becoming victims of other forms of human rights violations (Hassan & Shafi, 2013)
Moreover, the analysis reveals how gender plays a significant role in shaping the experiences of conflict. Women, who are often responsible for taking caring for their families and maintaining household stability, are disproportionately affected by the violence and insecurity that conflict brings (Al Gasseer et al., 2004). Women's lives, therefore, are not only disrupted by violence and trauma but also by the social norms and expectations that define their roles in society. The accounts of the research participants offer a powerful insight into the gendered experiences of conflict in Kashmir, as one of the women reported: “I have lost my loved ones to this conflict – including my father, my brother, and my husband... Every time, I hear the sound of shelling, it brings back painful memories of their deaths. This trauma never goes away...”
The response of one of my respondents highlighted the impact of conflict on individuals and families, particularly in terms of the trauma and loss that they experience. The loss of family members has profound and long-lasting effects on individuals and communities, as it can disrupt social networks and lead to a sense of dislocation and alienation (Králová, 2015). Moreover, it also highlighted the gendered dimensions of the conflict, as it specifically references the loss of male family members. In many societies, men are seen as the primary providers and protectors of their families, and their loss has significant consequences for women and children who rely on them for support and security (Pyke, 1996). The reference to the sound of shelling also speaks to the ongoing nature of conflict and violence, and the ways in which it can be re-triggered through sensory experiences. This contributes to a sense of ongoing trauma and fear, as individuals are reminded of past violence and loss, and are uncertain about what the future holds.
These accounts reflected on the ways in which conflict had profound social, psychological, and gendered effects, highlighting the need for more inclusive and gender-sensitive approaches to conflict resolution and peacebuilding.
The conflict has forced many women to leave their homes and communities, either as refugees within their own country or as migrants to other regions. Women described the challenges of starting life in a new place, finding employment opportunities, and adapting to new cultural norms. Some women also reported facing discrimination and stigmatization as migrants or refugees. Displacement and mobility are critical issues affecting women in conflict zones, and the conflict in Kashmir has had a significant impact on women's ability to stay in their homes and communities. The displacement of women results from a range of factors including, but not limited to, the physical destruction of their homes and communities, the fear of violence and persecution, and the loss of livelihoods due to the disruption of economic activity (Amin & Khan, 2009). These challenges further exacerbate existing gender inequalities, as women may face greater difficulty in accessing basic services or finding employment opportunities (Zuckerman & Greenberg, 2004).
One woman who was forced to flee her home in Kashmir describes her experience of displacement as follows:
Leaving our home and community was one of the most difficult decisions we had to make. We had to leave behind everything we had ever known and start over in a new place. It was hard to find a job, and the people in our new community were not always welcoming. We felt like outsiders in our own country.
Another woman who was forced to migrate to a new region after the conflict started described her experience of discrimination and stigma as follows:
When we arrived in our new community, people treated us differently because we were migrants from Kashmir. They saw us as a threat to their jobs and livelihoods, even though we were just trying to survive... It's hard to feel like you belong in a place where you are not wanted to.
Narratives of these women illustrated the ways in which displacement and mobility had significant social, economic, and cultural consequences for women affected by conflict. As refugees or migrants, women often face additional challenges related to discrimination, stigmatization, and the loss of social networks and support systems (Baranik et al., 2018). Moreover, these women's accounts validated that displacement exacerbates existing gender inequalities, as women faced greater difficulty in accessing basic services or finding employment opportunities.
Another Kashmiri woman stated:
Leaving my home was one of the hardest things I've ever had to do. Everything I knew and loved was there, and now I feel like a stranger in a strange land. People look at me differently and treat me like I'm not one of them.
She further added:
Every day feels like a struggle, and I can't escape the memories of what I've lost. Sometimes I feel like I'm not sure what the point of going on is. But then I remember that others have experienced similar losses and that we can support each other. That's what gives me hope.
In addition to the loss of loved ones, many women in Kashmir have also experienced the loss of their homes, communities, and way of life. The conflict has forced many to flee their homes and seek refuge in other parts of the region or neighboring countries. This displacement can be traumatic and disorienting, with women facing the challenges of starting anew in a new place, finding employment, and adapting to new cultural norms. Some women also reported facing discrimination and stigmatization as migrants or refugees.
Overall, the experiences of displacement and mobility highlighted the need for more comprehensive and inclusive approaches to peacebuilding and conflict resolution that address the needs and perspectives of women and other marginalized groups. Such approaches should take into account the complex social and cultural dynamics that shape women's experiences of displacement and mobility and work to promote greater social cohesion and inclusion.
The conflict has also resulted in significant loss and grief for women in Kashmir. Many women reported losing family members, friends, or their homes as a result of the conflict. These losses have had a profound impact on their lives, with many reporting feelings of isolation, depression, and anxiety. Women who had lost their husbands or sons also described the challenges of being single parents in a patriarchal society.
Loss and grief are among the most pervasive and enduring consequences of armed conflict, and the conflict in Kashmir is no exception (Hamid et al., 2021). Women in the region have experienced significant loss and trauma as a result of the violence and insecurity that has characterized the conflict, with many losing loved ones or facing the prospect of displacement and dislocation. This has resulted in a range of emotional and psychological challenges, including depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
For many Kashmiri women, the loss of loved ones has been particularly devastating. The conflict has claimed the lives of thousands of people, leaving behind grieving families and shattered communities (Qayoom, 2014). Women who have lost family members, such as husbands, fathers, or sons, are often left to shoulder the burden of caring for their families alone, with little support or resources. This can exacerbate feelings of isolation, anxiety, and hopelessness.
One Kashmiri woman shared:
I lost my son in the conflict, and it feels like a part of me died with him. The pain is always there, like a weight on my chest that I can't escape... I wish there was someone I could talk to… who could understand, what I'm going through...
One of the key challenges facing women who have experienced loss and grief was the lack of adequate support and resources. Traditional approaches to dealing with trauma and grief often focused on individual therapy or medication, but in conflict-affected regions, such approaches are not always effective or accessible (Schauer & Schauer, 2010). Instead, a more community-based approach that emphasizes social support, resilience-building, and healing through shared experiences may be more appropriate.
These narratives demonstrated the emotional toll that conflict took on individuals and communities, highlighting the need for more comprehensive approaches to dealing with loss and grief in conflict-affected regions. Such approaches should be grounded in an understanding of the social and cultural dynamics that shape women's experiences of trauma and loss and should prioritize the development of community-based support systems and healing practices that promote resilience and social cohesion. Ultimately, by addressing the needs of women who have experienced loss and trauma, peacebuilding efforts in Kashmir can be more effective and sustainable.
The conflict has also highlighted and exacerbated existing gender inequalities in Kashmir. Women described how their access to education, healthcare, and employment has been limited by cultural norms and discrimination. They also highlighted how the conflict reinforced patriarchal values, with women expected to take on caregiving roles and excluded from decision-making processes.
Gender equality is a fundamental human right, yet it remains elusive in many conflict-affected regions, including Kashmir (Durrani & Halai, 2018). The region's long-standing conflict has had a profound impact on women, who face a range of challenges that impeded their ability to fully participate in social, economic, and political life. These challenges include discriminatory laws and policies, gender-based violence, limited access to education and healthcare, and cultural attitudes that reinforce gender stereotypes and restrict women's roles and opportunities.
As one woman in Kashmir noted,
As a Kashmiri woman, I feel like my life is always in danger. There is so much violence and insecurity, and women are often the targets. We need to create a society where women can live without fear and have the same opportunities as men.
She further added: "I feel like my life is always restricted and controlled by the conflict. We need peace so that we can live our lives on our terms and pursue our dreams without fear."
The conflict in Kashmir has not only created challenges for women in terms of violence, displacement, and mobility, but it has also restricted their agency and opportunities for personal and professional growth (Khan, 2022). The ongoing conflict resulted in limited economic opportunities, social restrictions, and the curtailing of basic human rights, which disproportionately affect women. Women in Kashmir are often subject to gendered forms of oppression, including gender-based violence and discrimination, which further exacerbates their experiences of marginalization and exclusion.
One of the main challenges to gender equality in Kashmir is the lack of participation of women in decision-making processes, both at the community and state levels. Women are often excluded from formal political and social institutions, leaving them without a voice in the decision-making processes that affect their lives (Cornwall, 2003). As a result, their perspectives and needs are often overlooked in policy and program development, which perpetuates the cycle of marginalization and exclusion. To address these challenges, there needs to be a concerted effort to promote women's participation in decision-making processes and to increase their representation in formal political and social institutions. This will require dismantling patriarchal power structures that perpetuate gender inequality and the exclusion of women from political and social life.
As one Kashmiri woman noted:
We need to create more opportunities for women to participate in decision-making processes and to have a say in policies and programs that affect our lives. Only then can we truly achieve gender equality and build a more just and peaceful society.
The above opinion of a respondent highlights the need for greater gender equality in Kashmiri society and the importance of empowering women to take an active role in shaping their futures. To achieve this goal, there needs to be a significant shift in societal attitudes and norms that limit women's agency and participation in decision-making processes. One of the key ways to promote women's participation in decision-making is to provide them with greater access to education and training. By empowering women with the skills and knowledge needed to participate in political and social life, they will be better equipped to advocate for their rights and interests and to participate effectively in the development and implementation of policies and programs (Creamer & Laughlin, 2005).
In addition to education, there needs to be a concerted effort to provide women with greater economic opportunities and financial independence. This will enable them to exercise greater control over their lives and to participate more fully in decision-making processes without fear of economic reprisals. Another important step is to challenge patriarchal power structures and cultural norms that limit women's participation in decision-making. This includes increasing women's representation in formal political and social institutions and promoting a more inclusive and gender-sensitive approach to policy and program development (Palmieri, 2018).
Overall, achieving gender equality in Kashmir will require a multi-faceted approach that addresses the root causes of gender inequality and empowers women to take an active role in shaping their futures. As the quote suggests, only by creating more opportunities for women to participate in decision-making processes can we truly build a more just and peaceful society that benefits all members of the community.
In conclusion, this study provides important insights into the impact of armed conflict on the lives of women in Kashmir. The findings of this study suggest that the conflict has had a significant gendered impact, affecting women in ways that are often overlooked in traditional conflict analysis and peacebuilding efforts. Women in Kashmir face unique challenges and experiences that must be taken into account if peacebuilding initiatives are to be effective. This study highlights the need for gender-sensitive peacebuilding strategies that prioritize the needs and perspectives of women. Specifically, peacebuilding initiatives must prioritize the prevention of violence against women, providing support and services to the violence victims, addressing the challenges faced by displaced or migrants women and those who have experienced loss and grief, and prioritize gender equality.
Furthermore, this study emphasizes the importance of incorporating women's voices and perspectives in all aspects of the peacebuilding process. Women must be included in decision-making processes and must have a say in the design and implementation of peacebuilding initiatives. Only by integrating a gender perspective into conflict analysis and peacebuilding efforts can we ensure that the needs and perspectives of all members of society are taken into account and that we build a more just and sustainable peace. Finally, this study highlights the need for further research on the gendered impacts of armed conflict in Kashmir and other conflict-affected regions. By continuing to explore and analyze these impacts, we can develop more effective and comprehensive peacebuilding strategies that address the needs and perspectives of all members of society.
The analysis of the impact of armed conflict on the lives of women in Kashmir is a crucial area of research that requires a comprehensive understanding of the gendered dimensions of the conflict. While this article provided insights into this issue, it has a few limitations that affect the accuracy and generalizability of our findings.
The article focuses solely on the experiences of women in Kashmir and does not take into account the experiences of other groups, such as men or children, who may also be affected by the conflict. This could limit the generalizability of the findings and prevent a comprehensive understanding of the conflict's impact on society as a whole. Another limitation of the article is sampling bias. The article draws on personal narratives and interviews with women in the region, which may not be representative of the experiences of all women in Kashmir.
Women who did not participate in the study or who were unable to share their experiences may have different perspectives and experiences of the conflict, which are not captured in the analysis. The article relies primarily on qualitative data, which may not provide a complete picture of the impact of the conflict on women in Kashmir. Without quantitative data, it is difficult to assess the prevalence and severity of different types of violence, displacement, and loss experienced by women in the region.
Several limitations and recommendations for future research can be identified based on the findings of this study. To provide a more comprehensive understanding of the impact of armed conflict on society in Kashmir, future research could expand its scope beyond women to include the experiences of men and children.
Additionally, efforts should be made to address potential sampling bias in studies on the impact of armed conflict on women's lives in Kashmir, such as through the use of more representative samples and the inclusion of women who may be hesitant to share their experiences. To provide a more complete picture of the impact of the conflict on women in Kashmir, future research could include quantitative data such as surveys or other statistical analyses. This could help assess the prevalence and severity of different types of violence, displacement, and loss experienced by women in the region.
To enhance the practical implications of research findings, future research could provide a more detailed analysis of specific peacebuilding strategies that could be used to address the needs of all members of society. This could include strategies for addressing gender-based violence, promoting women's participation in peacebuilding efforts, and providing support for women who have experienced displacement and loss.
Finally, future research could explore how the historical and political context of the conflict in Kashmir informs the development of effective strategies for addressing the impact of the conflict on women's lives. This could help provide a more nuanced understanding of the root causes and complexities of the conflict and inform the development of more effective strategies for promoting peace and addressing the needs of all members of society.
Ahanger, J. A. (2019). The chronic conflict over Kashmir. World Affairs: The Journal of International Issues, 23(2), 88–97
Al Gasseer, N., Dresden, E., Keeney, G. B., & Warren, N. (2004). Status of women and infants in complex humanitarian emergencies. Journal of Midwifery & Women's Health, 49(4), 7–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmwh.2004.05.001
Amin, S., & Khan, A. W. (2009). Life in conflict: Characteristics of Depression in Kashmir. International Journal of Health Sciences, 3(2), Article e213
Amnesty International. (2019). Denied: Failures in accountability for human rights violations by security forces in Jammu and Kashmir. https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/ASA2018742015ENGLISH.pdf
Baranik, L. E., Hurst, C. S., & Eby, L. T. (2018). The stigma of being a refugee: A mixed-method study of refugees' experiences of vocational stress. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 105, 116–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2017.09.006
Chari, P. R., Cheema, P. I., & Cohen, S. P. (2009). Four crises and a peace process: American engagement in South Asia. Brookings Institution Press
Chinkin, C. (2004). The gendered impacts of armed conflict on women and girls: A review of research and UN reports. International Review of the Red Cross, 86(855), 737–768.
Cornwall, A. (2003). Whose voices? Whose choices? Reflections on gender and participatory development. World Development, 31(8), 1325–1342. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(03)00086-X
Creamer, E. G., & Laughlin, A. (2005). Self-authorship and women's career decision making. Journal Of College Student Development, 46(1), 13–27.
Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. In K. Maschke (Ed.), Feminist legal theories (pp. 139–167). Routledge.
Cuttitta, P. (2018). Displacement and gender-based violence: Experience of Somali refugees in Kenya. Forced Migration Review, 57, 35–37.
Duffy, J. (2014). Gendered insecurity: Humanitarian crises and gender-based violence in Mali. African Affairs, 113(451), 226–247.
Durrani, N., & Halai, A. (2018). Dynamics of gender justice, conflict, and social cohesion: Analysing educational reforms in Pakistan. International Journal of Educational Development, 61, 27–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2017.11.010
Dyregrov, A., Gupta, L., Gjestad, R., & Mukanoheli, E. (2000). Trauma exposure and psychological reactions to genocide among Rwandan children. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13(1), 3–21. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007759112499
Enloe, C. (2007). Globalization and militarism: Feminists make the link. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Hamid, W., Jahangir, M. S., & Khan, T. A. (2021). Half-widows: silent victims of the Kashmir conflict. Race & Class, 62(4), 88–105. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306396821989199
Hassan, A., & Shafi, A. (2013). Impact of conflict situation on mental health in Srinagar, Kashmir. Bangladesh E-Journal of Sociology, 10(1), 101–126.
Human Rights Watch. (2018). Everyone lives in fear: Patterns of impunity in Jammu and Kashmir. https://www.hrw.org/reports/2006/india0906/india0906web.pdf
Johnson, C. (2013). Gender and armed conflict: New realities, new challenges. Zed Books.
Karam, A. (2012). Women, Islamisms, and the state: Contemporary feminisms in Egypt. St. Martin's Press.
Kazi, S. (2014). Women in conflict situations: Vulnerabilities, rights, and aspirations. Social Change, 44(3), 317–333.
Khan, N. A. (2022). Critique of exclusionary women's nationalism in Kashmir, and reconceptualizing the relationship between state and non-state women actors. In F. Jussawalla & D. Omran (Eds.), Muslim women’s writing from across south and southeast Asia (pp. 35-44). Routledge.
Kralova, J. (2015). What is social death? Contemporary Social Science, 10(3), 235–248
Krause, J., & Muggah, R. (2019). Displacement in urban areas: New challenges, new partnerships. Journal of Refugee Studies, 32(2), 212–233.
Megerisi, A., & Tripp, A. M. (2016). Gender and displacement in Libya. Forced Migration Review, 51, 71–73.
Palmieri, S. (2018). Gender-sensitive parliaments. In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.215
Pankhurst, D. (2008). Revisiting the consequences of violent conflict for women. Security Dialogue, 39(5), 505–525.
Pyke, K. D. (1996). Class-based masculinities: The interdependence of gender, class, and interpersonal power. Gender & Society, 10(5), 527–549. https://doi.org/10.1177/089124396010005003
Qayoom, F. (2014). 'Women and armed conflict: Widows in Kashmir'. International Journal of Sociology and Anthropology, 6(5), 161–168.
Rehman, T. (2015). Gender, Islam, and democracy in Kashmir. Palgrave Macmillan.
Saba, A. (2017). Gendering conflict in Jammu and Kashmir: A comparative analysis of women's experiences in the armed conflict. South Asian Survey, 24(2), 147–163.
Schauer, M., & Schauer, E. (2010). Trauma-focused public mental-health interventions: A paradigm shift in humanitarian assistance and aid work. In E. Martz (Eds.), Trauma rehabilitation after war and conflict: Community and individual perspectives (pp. 389–428). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-5722-1_16
Tai, X. H., Mehra, S., & Blumenstock, J. E. (2022). Mobile phone data reveal the effects of violence on internal displacement in Afghanistan. Nature Human Behaviour, 6(5), 624–634. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-022-01336-4
Turshen, M. (2000). The political economy of violence against women. Oxford University Press.
Usta, J., & Moukarzel, S. (2008). Gender-based violence against women in the Middle East. Health Care for Women International, 29(3), 283–299.
Zuckerman, E., & Greenberg, M. (2004). The gender dimensions of post-conflict reconstruction: An analytical framework for policymakers. Gender & Development, 12(3), 70–82. https://doi.org/10.1080/13552070412331332330