Role of Educational Institutions in Influencing Entrepreneurial Intentions: A Scoping Review

The study of entrepreneurial intention has been an emerging research agenda in the field of entrepreneurship since the 1990s. This field is appealing for researchers since it offers the opportunity to analyze entrepreneurial intention in the context of a different theoretical framework that can be used by developing and developed countries to improve their economies. The study having purpose to conduct a scoping review of existing literature on entrepreneurial intentions. It aimed to spot research gaps in the existing literature without conducting an exhaustive review. One such gap was the inadequate use of existing theories to facilitate the development of entrepreneurial pedagogy. The other identified research gap was that no scholar has explained how external factors, such as education, financial support, and culture, affect entrepreneurial intentions and how these intentions can be explored from a theoretical perspective. Furthermore, scholars also failed to elaborate on which study materials should be used by educational institutions in order to improve enterprising expectations among students. Thus, it is recommended that future scholars should explore the above-mentioned research gaps so policymakers may use their findings to develop a mechanism that would facilitate the development of entrepreneurial intentions.


Introduction
For the last two decades, scholars have researched entrepreneurial activity at the firm and individual levels. According to Stenholm et al. (2013), the role of educational institutions is critical since they can improve the rate of entrepreneurial activity at the firm and at the individual level. Conversely, other scholars discuss that in order to improve the rate of entrepreneurial activity, it is vital to have ambitious entrepreneurial intentions to perform an entrepreneurial activity. New and emerging businesses are also the results of such ambitious intentions of entrepreneurs (Huggins & Thompson, 2014;Welter, 2011;Zapkau et al., 2015;Zellweger et al., 2011).
Existing studies on entrepreneurial activity indicate that entrepreneurial action is deliberate, purpose-oriented behaviour that results from entrepreneurial intentions. Little to no studies have explored the affiliation between intentions and entrepreneurial behaviour when studying entrepreneurial actions. In contrast, one empirical record proposes that every entrepreneurial target is not necessarily converted into real-time entrepreneurial actions revealing a visible gap between intentions and actions (Arshed et al., 2017;Bogatyreva et al., 2019a;Ghaffar et al., 2020).
According to Kautonen, Van Gelderen, and Fink (2008), if human behaviour is planned, then so is entrepreneurial intent. Their study suggests that if entrepreneurial intent is a planned behaviour, educational institutes should strive to be more creative when motivating students to start their businesses. Proper guidance at this stage will help students gain robust entrepreneurial intentions that will encourage them to start their businesses. In the same vein of thought, Ajzen's theory of planned behaviour (TPB) also suggests that actions (starting a business) are predicted by intentions (entrepreneurial intentions) (Ajzen, 1991). Additionally, intentions can be predicted by analyzing the attitude to behaviour, perceived behaviour control, and subjective norms. Intentions are also affected by external factors such as skills, social traits, cultural traits, and financial support (Shapero & Sokol, 1982). Many entrepreneurship researchers have verified that various facets of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) can be used to aid entrepreneurs who are just starting their business (Krueger Jr et al., 2000).

School of Commerce and Accountancy
Volume 1 Issue 1, Spring 2021 An entrepreneur as an innovator and as a person who brings about a change in the economic conditions at the firm and individual level (Schumpeter & Backhaus, 2003). There is a rising trend in entrepreneurship in developed countries, but it is debatable whether developing countries possess the potential to be entrepreneurial.
Prior studies on entrepreneurship (Bogatyreva et al., 2019a;Li et al., 2017;Nabi et al., 2011;Yeganegi et al., 2019) has supported the claim that Students from emerging nations have more grounded pioneering goals than developed nations (Nabi et al., 2011). This statement isn't steady with the consequences of different researches that argue that developing countries do not always have a higher ratio of entrepreneurial intentions among students (Paul & Shrivastava, 2015). Entrepreneurship can be used to bring about change in both developed or developing countries. Additionally, there is little to no research done on entrepreneurial education and intention in developing countries Nabi et al., 2011;Tkachev & Kolvereid, 1999). However, several studies have compared entrepreneurial intentions but little work has been carried out to highlight the use of entrepreneurial intentions to improve entrepreneurial culture in developed or developing countries.
According to the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) project, beginning phase entrepreneurship has higher productivity driven economies than advancement focused economies (Bosma & Levie, 2009). Additionally, in developed economies, 17 % of startups are necessitydriven, and in developing countries, 32 % of startups are necessity-driven (Bosma & Levie, 2009;Grant et al., 2019). In developing countries, major turbulences also generate an unstable economic environment, which creates many hurdles for students who are in the process of choosing a career (Jones et al., 2008). However, it should be noted that unstable economies provide more opportunities for entrepreneurial activities than stable economies Iakovleva, 2007;Munir et al., 2021).
This study will conduct a scoping review of existing literature discussing the development of students' entrepreneurial intentions. It will also develop a literature review matrix on the role of educational institutions in developing entrepreneurial intent in students. Additionally, this study will perform a systematic scoping review to identify the gaps presented in Audit and Accounting Review Volume 1 Issue 1, Spring 2021 the current literature on entrepreneurial targets in order to facilitate future research. In order to do that, the current study will investigate how entrepreneur pedagogy can be improved in educational institutions.

Literature Review
Scholars have been conducting research in the field of entrepreneurship for the last three decades (Amatori, 1980;Bogatyreva et al., 2019a). However, little to no work has been shown to explore the lack of entrepreneurial spirit and motivation among students. Scholars have studied multiple fields of entrepreneurship; one of such fields of research is the study of entrepreneurial intentions at the individual level. Entrepreneurial targets are the main predictors of entrepreneurial behavior (Du et al., 2015). The entrepreneurial target should be at the forefront of each entrepreneur's mind since it helps them establish and grow ventures that bring them opportunities for success (Nabi et al., 2011). Unfortunately, moral decay has hindered the growth of ethics and corporate social responsibility in emerging and old businesses in the present society. To address this issue, it is necessary to employ innovative and effective approaches that would sustain profitability and offer new business opportunities for growth (Aziz, 2019;Javidan et al., 2006).
Existing literature on entrepreneurship indicates that this field has gained the attention of university students because it offers alternative employment options (Schwarz et al., 2009;Arshed et al., 2019;Krueger Jr et al., 2000;Tara et al., 2020). Many scholars have researched entrepreneurial education; however, the effect of entrepreneurial education in developing entrepreneurial intentions is still not adequate. The economy of any nation is greatly reliant on its entrepreneurial activities, especially in the case of developing nations, since they generate revenues from such activities. For this reason, the demand for entrepreneurial graduates is on a steep rise in both emerging and advanced nations. activity rather than on those factors that affect individual behaviour and intentions. The lack of literature on entrepreneurial intentions and behaviour reveals a research gap that scholars can utilize to conduct future research.

Figure 1
The Web Metrix of Articles in Entrepreneurship Field Source: The Web Metrix was created by using the article's data from databases, e.g., Web of Science, Google Scholar, and EBSCO

Conceptual Theories Discussed in Literature on Entrepreneurial Intentions
Most scholars have recommended two types of theories that can be used to research the field of entrepreneurial intention. Those two theories are the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and entrepreneurial event theory (EET). The theory of planned behaviour (TPB) has been marked as the most consistent theory that can be used to predict entrepreneurial intentions Autio et al., 1997;Aziz et al., 2020).
In his theory of planned behaviour (TPB), Ajzen (1991) theorized that an individual's attitude has an impact on an individual's behaviour through intentions. It can be understood by analyzing the entrepreneur's Audit and Accounting Review Volume 1 Issue 1, Spring 2021 environment that their intentions and personal factors do not determine their behaviour. (Lüthje & Franke, 2003). Autio et al. (1997) argued that a supportive environment provided by a university negatively affected entrepreneurial intentions. It has also been proven that attitudes cause 50% of the intention variation (Autio et al., 1997;Grant et al., 2019a). According to another research in this field of this study, entrepreneurial education positively affected students' entrepreneurial intentions (Hynes & Richardson, 2007).
According to the findings of a research conducted by Nabi et al. (2011), it was evident that Ajzen's theory of planned behavior (TPB) can be used in both developing and developed countries to guide budding entrepreneurs since it had equal power of prediction in both cases. They also explained that a higher inclination of entrepreneurial intentions was seen in developing nations as compared to developed nations. Furthermore, the theory of planned behavior's (TPB) antecedent score was also higher in developing countries' subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and attitudes compared with the developed countries' particular norms, perceived behavior control, and attitudes. Shapero and Sokol (1982) proposed the use of Entrepreneurial Event Theory (EET) to discuss the relationship between education and entrepreneurial intentions. They stated that perceived desirability and perceived feasibility affect the intention to initiate a new venture. Perceived desirability is the level of appeal that entrepreneurship has, while perceived feasibility is the person's belief to accomplish and establish a venture Grant et al., 2019b;Kuehn, 2008). The theory of planned behaviour (TPB) states that intentions depend upon attitudes formed by personal experiences and subjective norms, which are composed of other people's opinions on an individual's behaviour (Ajzen, 1991).

Role of Educational Institutions in Developing Entrepreneurial Intentions
Recently, entrepreneurship studies and its sub-topics, such as academic entrepreneurship, have become popular in the field of management science. According to Gelard and Saleh (2011), entrepreneurship has gained the interest of university students since it offers alternative employment School of Commerce and Accountancy Volume 1 Issue 1, Spring 2021 options. Whereas, entrepreneurial intent has become a prime factor that can be used to predict the behavior of entrepreneurs, which is why it is imperative to study the factors causing a rise in entrepreneurial intent Krueger Jr et al., 2000).
Academic entrepreneurship is described as the process in which a group or an individual creates a business venture or spinoff using the knowledge gained from being linked to an academic institution or a research centre (Bae et al., 2014;Chandler & Hanks, 1998;Gibb, 2012). Academic spinoffs are gaining popularity because they offer entrepreneurial opportunities, support the economic system, and become an inspirational influence on the overall innovation processes of a nation (Allahar & Sookram, 2019).
Previous studies have also indicated that the environment has a major impact on businesses. The decision to start a business depends on the country's institutions, culture, and the availability of financial support (Krueger & Carsrud, 1993;Shane et al., 2003).
Earlier research work on entrepreneurship mainly focused on the entrepreneurs' personality traits, such as innovativeness and the need for achievement (N-Ach) (Brockhaus, 1980). However, since the 1990s, the focus of entrepreneurial research shifted from personality traits to the attitude and the intentions needed to start a new business (Douglas & Shepherd, 1999). This research found that the main factors of entrepreneurial intentions were the general attitude towards achievement, independence, and the ease with which one can initiate a business (Autio et al., 1997).
After the 1990s, studies focused more upon the factors affecting entrepreneurial intentions in students. One such study found that since students did not have enough knowledge about entrepreneurship, they were scared of taking risks. It was deduced that the students lacked proper intentions to start a new business. There needs to be a motivating presence that guides students to develop proper entrepreneurial intentions. Hence, educational institutes play an significant role in the growth of entrepreneurial environments and cultures (Wang & Wong, 2004).
According to McGee, Dowling, Megginson (1995), a firm's network should be developed to create entrepreneurial teams. They claim that such Audit and Accounting Review Volume 1 Issue 1, Spring 2021 a network brings new skill sets and knowledge to the firm and supports them in the initial stages of business growth. Birley and Stockley (2000) posit that an informal network comprises friends, family, and people from the neighbourhood. They play a vibrant role in the early stages of business. In later stages, businesses expand their network to government agencies, lawyers, and accountants. These are regarded as a formal network and play an important role in the maturity phase of a business.

Methods of Research
As discussed above, this study has used the scoping review method to identify the gaps in the existing literature on entrepreneurial intentions. Scoping review assesses existing literature to some extent; it is similar to a literature review but differs in goal and objective. Unlike literature review, a scoping review systematically selects and appraises existing literature; it also attempts to answer focused questions through a high-level overview of the selected literature. In a scoping review, data is mapped or charted to spot potential gaps in the existing literature so an answer to the focused question can be found. Arksey and O'Malley (2005) describes, there are five stages of a scoping review. These stages have also been used to conduct a scoping review in this article. The stages are defined as follows:  "Identifying the research question"  "Identifying relevant studies"  "Study selection"  "Charting the data"  "Collating and reporting on the results" (Arksey & O'Malley, 2005, p. 22) In order to conduct this scoping review, the following search words were used to search the articles from three databases: Google Scholar, EBSCO, and Web of Science. The search words are given below:  "Entrepreneurial intention" AND "factors affecting entrepreneurs"  "Entrepreneurial intention", AND "business environment", OR "entrepreneurial Environment"  "Entrepreneurial Intention" AND "education Institution" School of Commerce and Accountancy Volume 1 Issue 1, Spring 2021 The results showed that the compulsory education programs in universities significantly enhance students' entrepreneurial intentions.
Theory of planned behaviour (TPB) The motivation behind the research was to see the connection between innovative selfefficacy and entrepreneurial intention.

X X Qualitative analysis
The data was collected from academic articles.
The results showed that there is a strong link between entrepreneurial selfefficacy and entrepreneurial intentions. Moreover, it was found that selfefficacy in entrepreneurs leads to entrepreneurial intention. 14. Saeed et al. (2018)   Scoping Review Process Figure 2 shows the selection process of the articles and Table 1 illustrates the scoping literature review matrix.

Results and Discussion
Overall, the results of scoping review revealed that scholars had used quantitative analysis as a methodology to explore the field of entrepreneurial intentions. Moreover, almost every paper has used the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) as a conceptual model to research entrepreneurial intentions. Conversely, very few scholars have used entrepreneurial event theory (EET). The gap recognized in this scoping analysis is that none of the articles explored how external factors affect the entrepreneurial intentions of students. Moreover, the environment's role in developing entrepreneurial intentions has been ignored by most researchers. Additionally, several articles have explained the role of personality traits in the development of entrepreneurial intention, but only a few articles explained how university education (especially entrepreneurship or business education) influences student behaviour.
Thus, it is recommended that future scholars should explore how the environment provided by universities can enhance entrepreneurial intentions in students. Additionally, they should also explore other external factors that affect entrepreneurial intentions. For example, some external factors that need to be explored are political stability, poverty level, and government regulations that affect entrepreneurship in a country. If a person Audit and Accounting Review Volume 1 Issue 1, Spring 2021 has a good education and no suitable business environment, then the person will be demotivated, which will negatively affect his entrepreneurial intentions. Furthermore, this scoping review revealed that scholars had not explored the economic theory and some theories of entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurial intentions motivate individuals to perform an economic activity, which is why scholars must consider the importance of exploring the field of entrepreneurial intention.
While conducting future research, scholars need to remain vigilant since the nature of entrepreneurial intention varies in developed, developing, and underdeveloped countries. To develop better entrepreneurial intentions in students, effective methods to employ entrepreneurial pedagogies need to be developed. Scholars can also use the theory of knowledge and absorptive capacity theory to enhance a students' ability to retain knowledge and use it effectively. Such knowledge will help students develop different skills; it will also allow them to develop self-efficacy, which has an affinity with the development of entrepreneurial intentions.

Conclusion
This paper identified multiple factors that could influence entrepreneurial intentions through educational institutions using scoping review as a methodology. Through this scoping review, two research gaps were found in the existing literature. One such gap is that scholars have not used any other theory besides the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and entrepreneurial event theory (EET) to investigate entrepreneurial intentions. Another gap is that none of the articles has explained what kind of study materials should be used to develop entrepreneurial intentions in students. To fill in these research gaps, it is recommended that scholars should explore how external factors affect entrepreneurial intentions. Some factors that can develop entrepreneurial intentions in individuals are education, culture, environment, and attitude. It is also recommended that governments should offer low-interest loans and impose minimum taxes to assist budding entrepreneurs. In future exploration, scholars should focus on exploring the use of external factors to grow entrepreneurial intentions in students. This research will also help policymakers develop a mechanism that facilitates individuals willing to perform entrepreneurial activities.