Impact of Positive Emotions on the Willingness to Communicate in Second Language

Muhammad Adnan and Muhammad Umar Nadeem*

Department of Mass Communication, School of Social Sciences and Humanities, National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan

* Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Abstract

Globally, second language (L2) education aims to empower the learners with skills and motivation necessary for effective communication. The current study investigated the association between ten positive emotions and the Willingness to Communicate (WTC) in L2. The emotions studied were joy, gratitude, interest, serenity, amusement, hope, pride, awe, inspiration, and love. While previous research conducted on this topic was largely confined to the Western context, this study incorporated the Pakistani context as well to establish a more comprehensive picture. Three hundred (300) undergraduate and postgraduate students enrolled in higher education institutions (HEIs) in Islamabad, Pakistan took part in the research. The findings revealed that gratitude, pride, hope, inspiration, and amusement tend to impact students WTC in L2. The results offer many practical insights for policymakers, teachers, and higher education students. HEIs may develop/conduct a variety of policies, strategies, initiatives, trainings, and workshops to address L2 communication based on the findings of this research.

Keywords: Emotions, positive emotions, Higher Education Institutes (HEIs), Pakistan, second language, Willingness to Communicate (WTC)

Introduction

Willingness to Communicate (WTC) is an essential component of language learning and communication. In recent years, this concept has earned considerable attention from second language (L2) educators and researchers. WTC was first explored by (Burgoon 1976), McCroskey, and Richmond (1987) in their studies of communication and language learning. Burgoon (1976) first called it "unwillingness to communicate" and defined it as the consistent avoidance or depreciation of verbal communication. Subsequently, McCroskey and Baer (1985) examined WTC in the context of a person's native tongue (L1). Over the years, researchers realized the significance of WTC and linked it with the L2. WTC was defined by MacIntyre et al. (1998) in L2 as “a readiness to enter into discourse at a particular time with a specific person or persons, using an L2” (p. 547).

WTC is a key factor for an effective second-language learning and communication experience. Communication involves both expressing yourself clearly and understanding what other people are saying. Therefore, having an open mind and a willingness to speak are essential for successful language acquisition (Kang, 2005; Maclntyre et al., 2003; Shirvan et al., 2019). L2 requires potentially pleasant relationships based on interpersonal communication, meaningful interactions between individuals, and communication-based activities in classroom environment. Since the introduction of WTC in language learning, many studies have been conducted to assess its impact in classroom and out-of-classroom contexts (Lantolf, 2004; Yashima, 2002).

Recent research has identified a multitude of psychological, contextual, and linguistic elements that have the potential to impact WTC in L2 (Bukhari et al., 2015; Joe et al., 2017; Syed & Kuzborska, 2020; Yashima, 2002). For instance, academic achievement (Kim, 2004), self-confidence (Cao, 2011), motivation (Ghonsooly et al., 2012), language achievement (Mahmoodi & Moazam, 2014), openness to experience (Piechurska-Kuciel, 2018), and enjoyment (Khajavy et al., 2018) cast a positive impact on WTC. On the other hand, variables, such as language anxiety (Alemi et al., 2011), conscientiousness (Adelifar et al., 2016), and classroom anxiety (Khajavy et al., 2018) have a negative influence on WTC in L2. Apart from the above-mentioned variables, it has been noticed that the emotions of the individuals have a significant influence on WTC in L2.

Emotions have a substantial effect on the way individuals learn and communicate (Dewaele & Li, 2018). Literature indicates that several researchers from different backgrounds have effectively addressed the connection between emotions and WTC in L2 (Dewaele, 2019; Khajavy et al., 2018; Lee, 2020). However, some shortcomings in the literature on emotions and WTC in L2 still need to be addressed. Firstly, previous studies have focused more on exploring the negative emotions than positive emotions (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014). Secondly, previous research has focused on limited individual emotions, such as classroom enjoyment (Lee, 2020), anxiety (Khajavy et al., 2018), L2 anxiety and enjoyment (Dewaele, 2019), and motivation (Ghonsooly et al., 2012). Fredrickson (2013) outlined ten individual representative positive emotions in her broaden-and-build (B&B) theory (Fredrickson, 2004). According to this theory, positive emotions shape attitudes and behaviors, which means that they have a considerable impact on L2 communication. These positive emotions act as powerful motivators to facilitate L2 acquisition and success in a variety of contexts. However, they have remained unnoticed and overlooked in previous research concerning WTC in L2.

Moreover, most studies have been conducted in the cultural context of the West. Whereas very few attempts have been carried out in the cultural context of the East; for instance, Lee (2020) addressed the relationship between positive emotion (classroom enjoyment) and WTC in L2 in the Korean context. Cheng (2021) investigated the role of positive psychology emotion (grit) in contributing to students' intention in order to communicate in L2 in Taiwan’s context. Similarly, Peng (2015) studied the factors that influence WTC in L2. The findings indicated that prior experience with an L2 learning context positively affected WTC, whereas anxiety within the classroom showed negative effects. Additionally, international posture was observed to have a direct effect on WTC, while experience outside the classroom was found to have an indirect one. In the Chinese Context, a study conducted by Cao (2014) revealed that positive emotions could significantly influence classrooms' environment and learners' WTC within those classrooms. It is challenging to find any study that has addressed the impact of the broad range of individual positive emotions on WTC in L2

Research Question

The current research aimed to fill two major gaps in the existing literature. Firstly, it aimed to investigate the association between the top ten positive emotions identified by Fredrickson (2013) and WTC in L2. Secondly, many prior studies focused on the Western cultural context. Hence, this research endeavored to provide a novel outlook from the context of Pakistan. Moreover, the study also employed MacIntyre et al.'s (1998) heuristic model to investigate the association between positive emotions and WTC in L2. The model outlined the convergence of short-term and ongoing components that impact WTC in L2.

RQ: What is the relationship between the top ten representative positive emotions outlined by broaden-and-build (B&B) theory and WTC in L2?.

Literature Review

Broaden-and-Build (B&B)Theory

Barbara Fredrickson's broaden-and-build (B&B) theory shows that positive emotions expand one's outlook and open up a world of possibilities. According to her, when people experience positive emotions, their awareness is heightened which provides them with new ideas and opportunities for growth. Such emotions are thought to encourage individuals to take on fresh behaviors (Fredrickson, 2001). She identified “joy, gratitude, serenity, interest, hope, pride, amusement, inspiration, awe, and love as the top ten representative positive emotions” in her B&B theory (Fredrickson, 2004). Even though there is a wide variety of positive emotions, the above mentioned ten representative emotions have received attention from innumerable researchers. Several studies witnessed that these identified ten emotions are experienced by individuals more frequently as compared to other positive emotions (Fredrickson, 2013). Fredrickson has described the ten representative positive emotions based on patterns that trigger them, their functions, and the durable resources they build.

Joy develops the desire to play, whereas gratitude develops the desire to consider novel ways to be kind (Fredrickson, 2013). Individuals tend to experience joy when they receive good news, whereas gratitude is the quality of being aware of good fortune. Moreover, individuals feel interested in something mysterious or challenging in nature. It develops the urge to explore and pursue, whereas the knowledge gained becomes a durable resource (Fredrickson, 2013). Serenity is the contentment level of an individual and involves the desire to embrace the present realities and incorporate them into new values. In contrast to other positive emotions, hope arises in unattractive circumstances and produces aspiration in an individual's mind. It develops the desire to use one's strengths to make things happen (Fredrickson, 2013).

Pride transpires in circumstances when individuals take credit for some socially valued and worthy outcome (Fredrickson, 2013). It is a deep feeling of satisfaction that individuals experience because of their accomplishments. It develops the desire to fantasize about even bigger achievements. Amusement develops the desire to share a laugh and it helps individuals in making long-lasting social bonds. Inspiration develops when individuals witness human excellence which stimulates them to do something creative (Fredrickson, 2013). It builds durable resources in the shape of motivation and encouragement. Individuals feel awe when they encounter goodness on a large scale. It creates durable resources in the shape of new worldviews. Fredrickson described love as the most ubiquitous and consequential positive emotion. It is defined as the emotion that "broadens thought-action repertoires both in an "all of the above" manner and by creating momentary perceptions of social connection and self-expansion" (Fredrickson, 2013, p. 6).

Fredrickson's theory presented an interesting perspective on how emotions can have a far-reaching effect, expanding our intellectual horizons, and equipping us with the skills and resources to enhance our lives. Positive emotions create a feeling of openness to new ideas which consequently builds new resources. These new resources are manifested as increased creativity, higher self-esteem, or greater personal satisfaction. Previous studies considered the theoretical reasoning of B&B theory and established that a person's positive emotions can be extended to other aspects of their life (Denovan & Macaskill, 2017; Stifter et al., 2020). For instance, Denovan and Macaskill (2017) proposed a model using the B&B theory which suggests that participants can utilize their leisure activities as coping mechanisms to bolster their positive emotions, thereby increasing their overall well-being. Subsequently, a study conducted by Stifter et al. (2020) demonstrated how positive emotions could significantly improve children's cognitive and socio-emotional development. Similarly, the application of the B&B theory can be witnessed in the above-discussed studies and its significance can be argued alongside its influence on an individual's attitudes and behaviors.

Role of Emotions

Kovecses (2014) defined emotions as "a cause that has a "force" to affect some response (physiological, behavioral, and expressive) or that produces an action or set of actions" (p. 23). According to Dörnyei and Ryan (2015), "emotions play a huge part in our lives, yet they have been shunned to a large extent by both the psychology and the second language acquisition literature" (p. 9). A study conducted by Khajavy et al. (2018) uncovered a strong connection between enjoyment and anxiety and WTC within a classroom setting. Furthermore, their findings suggested that students who experienced positive emotions while their learning, were more WTC with others.

Recently, there has been an increased focus on positive emotions and WTC in L2. A study conducted by Lan et al. (2021) explored this association amongst university students in China and found a connection between grit - a positive psychological trait - and WTC in L2. Lee (2020) highlighted the importance of emotions regarding WTC in L2 and argued that the researchers need to redirect their focus from negative emotions to positive emotions. Additionally, it was witnessed that grit and classroom enjoyment (a positive emotion) are the antecedents of WTC in L2 of school and university students in Korea. Dewaele's (2019) investigation into the impact of emotions on the WTC of Spanish students drew some noteworthy conclusions. It was determined that foreign language anxiety served as a hindrance to WTC, whereas foreign language enjoyment acted as an enabling factor. These results emphasize the importance of cultivating a positive emotional climate when endeavoring to improve WTC. It has become evident that researchers from various cultural backgrounds including Korea, China, and Spain have looked into both the positive and negative emotions related to WTC. So far, it is evident that researchers from different cultural backgrounds, such as Korea, China, and Spain have considered both positive and negative emotions concerning WTC in L2. However, individual positive emotions have been largely overlooked by past studies.

Figure 1

Conceptual Model

Method and Instruments

The current study utilized a quantitative survey research design, employing convenience sampling to collect data from 300 undergraduate and postgraduate students enrolled at higher educational institutions in Islamabad, Pakistan. An online survey via Google Forms was administered to gather the data. WTC in L2 was measured with a twenty-seven items scale adapted from MacIntyre et al. (2001). On the other side, the top ten representatives of positive emotions were measured through the subscale of the modified differential emotions scale (mDES) developed by Fredrickson (2013). The internal consistency of the two scales was remarkably higher at .92, as reported by Lee and Drajati (2019) and Yaden et al. (2019).

Participants

Collectively, 300 undergraduate and postgraduate students of various backgrounds participated in the current study. These students were studying in various higher educational institutions in Islamabad, Pakistan. In a Pakistani English as a Foreign Language (EFL) setting, WTC in L2 is still in the developing stages. Therefore, the majority of the students have low levels of EFL proficiency. A study conducted by Mari et al. (2011) revealed that Pakistani students have much lower levels of proficiency in EFL than their peers in the Western world. However, English remains the language of instruction for many higher education institutes in urban areas of the country (Shamim, 2008). Therefore, communicating in English is considered as an essential part of students' learning and future careers. Out of 300 participants, 200 (66.7%) were undergraduates, and 100 (33.3%) were postgraduate students. As shown in Table 1, 131 (43.7%) of the participants were between the age of 16-20, 109 (36.3%) were between the age of 21-25, whereas 60 (20%) were between the age of 26-30. The male students represented 59% (n=177), whereas the female students represented 41% (n=123) of the participants. 

Table 1

Participants' Information

Reliability and Validity

Table 2 indicates a good alpha coefficient value of .88 for positive emotions and .97 for WTC in L2 (Sekaran & Bougie, 2010). Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was performed for all 37 items together to address the validity of the instruments. PCA was utilized in this research to assess the CFA with a factor loading of .30 and above, as recommended by Hair et al. (2010) and Tabachnick and Fidell (2007). The results showed that all 37 items loaded specifically onto their respective variables, as indicated in Table 2. Additionally, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test revealed that the data was suitable for factor analysis with a value of .87 (see Table 2). Furthermore, the results of Bartlett's test of sphericity were significant (χ² = 13613.852, p = .000). These findings demonstrate that the instruments utilized in this study have attained the necessary statistical requirements of validity.

Table 2

Reliability and Validity

Results

The results were derived by applying two different approaches including Correlation and Regression analysis to test the hypotheses of this study.

Correlation

Pearson Correlation test was employed to determine the association between the top ten positive emotions identified by Fredrickson (2013) and students' WTC. For the determination of strength, a criterion defined by Cohen (1988) was followed as .10 to .29 (small,) .30 to .49 (medium), and .50 to 1 (large). Table 3 shows a significant relationship between all individual positive emotions with WTC in L2.

Table 3

Correlations

Note. *p < .05; **p < .01

A small and significant relationship exists between amusement (r = .20) (p < .01) and WTC in L2. A medium and significant relationship was found between awe (r = .32) (p < .01) and WTC in L2, hope (r = .35) (p < .01) and WTC in L2, inspiration (r = .47) (p < .01) and WTC in L2, interest (r = .37) (p < .01) and WTC in L2, joy (r = .49) (p < .01) and WTC in L2 and serenity (r = .31) (p < .01) and WTC in L2. A large and significant relationship was found between gratitude (r = .64) (p < .01) and WTC in L2, love (r = .57) (p < .01) and WTC in L2 and pride (r = .56) (p < .01) and WTC in L2. All the values were less than .90, indicating no multi-collinearity in the dataset (Hair et al., 2010).

Regression

Linear Regression was employed to address the impact of individual positive emotions on WTC in L2 with a confidence interval of 95% and with an error margin of 5% (Hair et al., 2010; Sekaran & Bougie, 2010. According to Chin (1998), the R² values of .19, .33, and .67 for any dependent variables are considered weak, moderate, and substantial. Besides, the R² value must not be below .10 for the dependent variable to be at an acceptable level. The regression analysis results depicted that the R2 value of the WTC was .55 which means that the broad range of positive emotions explained 55% of the variation in WTC. The findings revealed a positive significant relationship between gratitude and WTC in L2 (β = .53) (p < .05), pride and WTC in L2 (β = .32) (p < .05), hope and WTC in L2 (β = .26) (p < .05), inspiration and WTC in L2 (β = .21) (p < .05), amusement and WTC in L2 (β = .11) (p < .05). On the other side, an insignificant relationship was determined between joy and WTC in L2 (β = .11) (p > .05), interest and WTC in L2 (β = .05) (p > .05), love and WTC in L2 (β = .03) (p > .05), serenity and WTC in L2 (β = .03) (p > .05) and awe and WTC in L2 (β = .00) (p > .05). Table 4 contains the supportive details of linear regression analysis. Overall, the findings of this study supported the fact that gratitude, pride, hope, inspiration, and amusement are the best predictors of WTC in L2 of the students. 

Table 4

Regression Analysis

Discussion

The current study addressed the potential limitations stemming from the previous studies. Firstly, it attempted to represent the cultural context of Pakistan in terms of WTC in L2 literature. Secondly, it investigated the impact of the broad range of individual positive emotions on WTC in L2. The study's findings revealed a positive and significant relationship between individual positive emotions, such as amusement, gratitude, hope, inspiration, and pride with WTC in L2. Therefore, it can be established that individual positive emotions have the potential to impact and predict students' WTC in L2. This study is one of the limited studies that has addressed the role of a broad range of positive emotions regarding WTC in L2 using the ten representative positive emotions classified by Fredrickson (2013).

Well-being and positive emotions are essential for a healthy mind and optimal functioning of a human body (Fredrickson, 2000). They are an expression of happiness, joy, enthusiasm, and love which leads to long-term personal and professional benefits. Positive emotions are known to bring people closer together and create a sense of community (Fredrickson, 2000). The findings revealed that out of ten representatives of positive emotions, gratitude, pride, hope, inspiration, and amusement are the strongest antecedents of WTC in L2 as compared to other positive emotions. The current findings offered novel insights and information. Additionally, it is difficult to link it with previous literature since it is one of the initial studies that has examined the relationship between the top ten representatives of positive emotions and WTC in L2.

Apart from the best predictors of WTC in L2, some individual positive emotions (for instance, joy, interest, love, serenity, and awe) could not significantly impact WTC in L2 for some reasons. Firstly, when the study's cultural context is changed, the established and significant relationships between the variables could be insignificant. A study conducted by Nadeem et al. (2020) encountered the same issue as this study. They argued that the diverse participants and cultural context could lead to an insignificant relationship between variables. In the current study, a different cultural context and participants were utilized in comparison to those in prior research, leading to some discrepancies in the findings. Secondly, higher education students in Islamabad, Pakistan, a demographic with unique cultural and contextual characteristics may have impacted their behaviors. It is important to consider these factors while interpreting the findings of this research. Thirdly, the context of Pakistani higher education is unique due to several reasons. Firstly, English remains the language of instruction for many higher education institutes in urban areas of the country, such as Islamabad. Whereas, in rural areas, most of the subjects are taught in Urdu which is the national language of Pakistan. Secondly, Urdu is the national and most common language across the country. English is still used for official correspondence throughout Pakistan. The discussed issues could be attributed to the reason for fluctuation in the results. Although a statistically significant relationship between the proposed variables could not be established, this does not mean that the relationship is not theoretically sound. Rather, it reveals that the findings of the study could not support the claims.

Emotions significantly impact human beings' cognitive processes and influence their attitudes and behaviors (Tyng et al., 2017). In classrooms, students with plenty of positive emotions do certain things that they would not normally agree to do. Positive emotions open new possibilities for them and help them develop new skills. Fredrickson (1998) proposed that positive and negative emotions are distinct but complementary. According to this view, positive emotions may counteract the effects of negative feelings (Dewaele, 2019; Lan et al., 2021; Lee, 2020). Prior studies have discovered that the individuals who experience positive emotions are more likely to demonstrate a wide range of extended attitudes and behaviours as compared to negative ones (Kahn & Isen, 1993). The results showed alignment with the findings of Khajavy et al. (2019) who determined that psychological capital consisting of hope, resilience, optimism, and self-efficacy contributes significantly to students’ second language WTC. This suggests that positive psychology traits are the powerful drivers to increase one's level of WTC in L2.

The current research provides both theoretical and practical insights on multiple levels. Firstly, it endeavored to develop the reach of heuristic model by expanding its applicability in Pakistan’s context (MacIntyre et al., 1998). Secondly, it attempted to address the gaps in literature on how different individual positive emotions contribute to WTC in L2. Moreover, it also offered useful theoretical and practical insights for second language learning practitioners.  By furthering the understanding of the key emotional factors involved in WTC, this study also helped to enhance learners' experiences and proficiency levels. Thirdly, the findings of this study act as a learning paradigm for educational institutes to take potential initiatives for students in order to enhance their positive emotions and motivate them to communicate in L2. Fourthly, teachers must strive to cultivate positive emotions and foster an environment that encourages conversation in a second language (L2). This is especially important since teachers serve as role models for their students, in guiding and helping them to regulate their emotions, and their interaction with one another (Karthikeyan, 2015). By creating a safe space, full of enthusiasm and encouragement, teachers can help cultivate an interest in L2 communication amongst their students, helping them to become more confident language learners. Lastly, the responsibility lies with students to enrich their positive personality traits by employing self-directed learning and becoming confident while communicating in L2. The study offers benefits across a multi-tiered population of people; however, it is not limited to policymakers, teachers, and students.

Conclusion

The current study examined the influence of positive emotions on WTC in L2 in the Pakistani context. The findings revealed that positive emotions, such as gratitude, pride, hope, inspiration, and amusement tend to impact students' WTC in L2. The study not only extended the application of MacIntyre et al.'s (1998) heuristic model, it also provided novel insights from the Pakistani context that could be used to expand the existing body of knowledge concerning WTC. Overall, this line of research is in the process of emergence and requires more validation from other cultural contexts. Therefore, upcoming researchers should apply and investigate this model in diverse cultural contexts to address and reconfirm the relationship between positive emotions and WTC in L2.

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