Role of Teachers in Cultivating Global Citizens through Peace Education: Perceptions of Secondary School Students in Lahore

1. Introduction

The second half of the 20^th century witnessed a shift in the understanding of educational spaces (schools) and educational materials (curriculum and textbooks). The governments made changes focusing on a new and emerging set of competencies and skills due to technological advancements, migration from the Southern block to the Northern block, and globalization. This also brought new challenges for policymakers, teachers, parents, and pupils at domestic, regional, and international levels. For example, the state reimagined the focus and purpose of education to meet national needs and address international demands on the state (Snauwaert, 2020). During this time period, one of the newly introduced concepts was peace education, with the state emphasizing its significance and how educational spaces and materials could foster it. This was particularly crucial after the devastation witnessed worldwide during World War II and numerous regional conflicts leading to wars between neighboring countries, occasionally involving international powers such as the USA and Russia (Hajir & Kester, 2020).

Peace education has emerged as an important area to cultivate the values and skills that foster peace (Sagkal et al., 2012). It is also suggested that teachers play a crucial role in educating pupils about conflict resolution, social justice, and human rights. In addition, an important objective of teachers is to equip their pupils with competencies that may promote non-violent behaviors (Hajir & Kester, 2020). This shift in education is not only due to the ever-increasing conflict in the world but also due to rapid globalization. In this globalized arena, the education system, specifically teachers, must educate pupils about peace and tolerance. According to Arslan et al. (2015), cross-cultural interaction resulting from migration and economic independence has made it necessary for the education system to foster peace, tolerance, and cooperation among individuals. The concept of global citizenship is at the core of peace education, involving the recognition that an individual has an identity beyond boundaries and is part of a global community. It is suggested that global citizens are empathetic, culturally aware, and socially committed (Davies, 2006; Risberg, 2022). The role of teachers is crucial in promoting these values and they serve as facilitators of peace education by creating a classroom environment based on tolerance, inclusion, and critical thinking (Galtung, 1969). Thus, the role of teachers is pivotal in shaping pupils' peace education. Therefore, this research aims to explore whether teachers" pedagogies, behaviors and classroom practices (curricular and co-curricular) contribute to cultivating global citizenship values through different classroom activities, classroom discussions, and behaviors in their peace education classrooms.

Research Questions

Based on the above information, this study seeks to address the following research questions:

RQ1: What is the impact of teachers on shaping pupils' global citizenship values through peace education, their pedagogies, classroom practices, and behaviors?

RQ2: What roles do demographics (age, socioeconomic status, and class type) play in shaping pupils' perception of peace education?

Literature Review

Peace has remained an allusive concept since the beginning of humanity, and it is evident from the understanding of this concept. Peace, throughout history, has been used as a tool by ruling political forces to organize and protect the interests of the powerful (Richmond, 2023). The major world religions practiced today or in the past "have preached the principles of peace and nonviolence, even while their adherents have acted with extreme barbarity towards believers and non-believers alike" (Hancock & Solomon, 2020, p. 9). They understood peace as the 'absence of conflict and war.' Industrialization and modernism promoted a scientific approach towards understanding peace, especially after witnessing the destruction and loss of life in every part of the world, either directly or indirectly. Peace itself became a complex idea to understand and interpret. Academics referred to it as negative peace, understood as the 'absence of war and large-scale violence.' It is a narrow understanding of peace because it only suggests an end to open violence and does not investigate or attempt to resolve the underlying causes of violence. On the other hand, the concept of positive peace involves restructuring society to recognize and address the underlying sources of structural conflict and violence. It aims to create an environment where people can coexist without fearing other members of the society or citizens of other states (Galtung, 1969, 1990).

The search for a common definition of peace education is ongoing, as evidenced by the scholarly work dedicated to peace studies and peace education. Dewey's democratic schools and classrooms promote active citizenship, Montessori emphasizes pedagogy for child-led learning, and Freire focuses on personal and collective transformation through radical pedagogical practices, setting the tone of this area of scholarship (Bajaj, 2008). It is also suggested that transformation within individuals and their immediate realities and relationships support the reconstruction of social structures and patterns of thought, leading to the achievement of positive peace (Patti et al., 2008). Peace education is considered a process that supports pupils in developing values, knowledge, attitudes, skills, and behaviors through socially constructed environments that foster harmony within oneself, with others, and with the natural environment. The pupils, under the guidance of their trained teachers, engage in encounters within socially constructed settings to learn and practice their skills in critically analyzing the sources and causes of structural violence that perpetuate social, economic, and political injustices and inequalities. These encounters are also aimed at producing the desired effects of realizing the consequences of war and structural injustice, which might encourage pupils to commit to peace and transform them into its agents.

Peace education incorporates learning about two dimensions of peace, the first is 'learning about peace' and the second is 'education about peace'. The first dimension focuses on understanding various forms of violence (physical, social, and structural) and their roots, as well as how they impede the establishment of sustainable peace. While, the second dimension focuses on empowering pupils to actively contribute to peace and conflict resolution (Reardon, 2004). Developed countries define peace as a "state that promotes social justice, harmony, equality before the law, and the absence of war," while developing countries understand it as a state that fosters healthy progress, equal development opportunities, the absence of discrimination, and the absence of war (Schabasser, 2023, p. 157). The skills emphasized in any peace education program aim to reconstruct desirable social realities by promoting transformation through peaceful change. This includes concepts such as 'planetary stewardship, global citizenship, and humane relationships,' which were identified by Reardon (1988) as conceptual pillars of peace education.

There are numerous academic and research organizations working in the field of peace and peace education. Their approach has been described as "almost fideistic... taken for granted that it is important to believe in peace in peace education" (Page, 2004, p. 5). Kant's ideas on peace education, such as 'doing what is morally right' are studied. Further, Calleja (1991) deduced three pillars of peace and peace education: communication, cooperation, and confidence. He connected these three pillars as "peace is not the ultimate objective of human coexistence but the daily driving force towards more cooperation, more confidence, and more communication" (Calleja, 1991, p. 532). Another perspective on peace education was presented by Reardon (1988, 2004). She emphasized the concept of 'authentic peace,' which is based on international human rights, the promotion of global justice, and the creation of a global civic community. The basic purpose of peace education, as inferred from her writings, is to contribute to the transformation of the social order and its implicit patterns of thought toward authentic peace.

There exists a debate on differentiating between Western and Eastern philosophies of education. Gur-Ze'ev (2010) critiqued the Westernized ideas of peace education, arguing that they comprise merely a tool to conceal hidden agendas, such as glorifying peace education and perpetuating hegemonic power relations. He disputed the flawed Western concepts of peace education, which suggest that peace is the opposite of violence and can be taught, promoted, and should be the sole reason for rationalizing the investment in peace education programs. These programs do not teach pupils to critically analyze Western domination (ideas, cultures, and lifestyles), making this form of violence, though real and damaging, invisible to peace educators and pupils. He presented the idea of teaching pupils to acknowledge and challenge the hegemonic status quo rooted in the so-called 'peaceful co-existence.' Instead, he wanted peace educators to ask, "What kind of togetherness is possible, bearable, or longed-for, and what are the ways to approach such a future?" (Gur-Ze'ev, 2010, p. 333). This adds the element of positive peace, reflecting the eastern philosophy of peace education, which emphasizes nurturing the 'most beautiful human being' through stimulating 'dialogue' among individuals and with nature. This process triggers 'revolution or inner transformation,' fostering an understanding and appreciation of 'interdependence and collaboration.' These values are essential to cultivate global citizens who embody the principles of global citizenship (Goulah, 2023; Urbain, 2009), which comprise the key concepts of a peace education program.

Many studies have explored the philosophical, theoretical, and conceptual frameworks that contribute to shaping the peace education curriculum, classroom practices, and training of peace educators (Gur-Ze-ev, 2001; Harris, 2019; Houghton & John, 2007; Novelli et al., 2015). The peace education programs taught worldwide encompass various concepts, such as communication and cooperation, global citizenship and civilization, interdependence, community and collaboration, willingness and readiness to adapt to the surroundings, the repercussions of past erroneous decisions, and universal cosmopolitanism. Peace education and pupil support systems are often discussed separately in the literature; however, they have not been studied yet in an integrated manner (Hume & Campbell, 2019). The literature on peace education reveals the significance of teachers' role in developing a support system for pupils to cultivate a positive attitude towards the requirements of peace education (Johnson & Johnson, 2011). The existing literature on peace education discusses the role and importance of teachers in promoting peace education but their integration within the system is overlooked in the literature. This literature gap emphasizes the need for research beyond identifying obstacles to providing tangible ideas and best practices to bridge theory and practice in school peace education.

Teachers play an important role in creating a support system to foster emotional, intellectual, and social skills, which is also one of the purposes of this study. Pupils sense the classroom atmosphere through their teachers' pedagogical practices and classroom behaviors and draw inferences about the curricular and co-curricular focus of classroom discussions. Keeping in view the dynamic nature of teachers' classroom practices and behaviors, this study explores how pupils perceive the role of teachers in fostering peace education in schools. Understanding the relationship between the peace education, teachers' classroom pedagogies, their classroom practices, and the pupil support systems created in classrooms are crucial to understand pupils' academic and non-academic needs. This understanding would support teachers in creating an inclusive and vibrant educational environment in their classes contributing to pupils' academic learning, socio-emotional resilience, and awareness of their surroundings, communities, and the environment. Thus, the aim is to provide valuable insights for the ongoing discussion about reshaping the educational system to foster a more peaceful and socially aware society by creating model societies in classrooms (Parmar, 2014).

The importance of teachers' role in transforming pupils is irrefutable and they are vital to educational advancement. However, their willingness to adopt peace education initiatives may differ. Research shows that teachers make necessary changes to their pedagogical strategies depending on time, training, and institutional support in the implementation of peace education programs in schools (Cook, 2014). It is also true that the lack of training and institutional support does not produce the desired results due to the reluctance and unpreparedness of teachers to teach peace education, which is essential for developing the skills needed to foster a culture of peace in pupils. Peace educators are aware of the correlation among the socio-cultural, emotional, cognitive, and affective domains. Peace education programs are designed to target these domains through the peace curriculum and peace activities. These programs intend to empower pupils as peace agents. Research suggests that such programs should include comprehensive pupil support systems that address emotional well-being, interpersonal conflicts, and the unique challenges of a diverse and interconnected world (Llorent et al., 2022). Thus, it is crucial to study how peace education and the creation of pupil support systems might work together to foster a more inclusive and peaceful educational environment.

Methodology

This research is undertaken to contribute to the ongoing discourse on peace education and how this discourse may support mainstream education to bring about the process of social change by integrating peace education into classroom practices. This research is quantitative and utilizes the survey research design. This approach enables the researchers to gain a deeper insight into the prevailing knowledge by assigning meaningful numerical values to the phenomena under observation. Social sciences also use this approach to take social reality as an objective truth and to measure it scientifically by interpreting the data in different social settings (Mills & Gay, 2016). The researchers used a convenience sampling strategy due to their limited access to schools. Although the authors approached numerous schools, both public and private, only a few schools granted permission for data collection from pupils. The target sample consisted of 389 pupils in grades 9 and 10 in the selected schools. Questionnaires were distributed to these pupils and it was ensured that they completed these questionnaires during classes. During the screening process, the researchers discarded 80 questionnaires because of overwriting and incorrect selection of options, such as overwriting and choosing multiple options instead of just one. Hence, the number of forms used for this study was reduced to 309.

This research hypothesizes that teachers who effectively use conflict resolution strategies in their educational materials and pedagogy create a learning environment that promotes understanding and dialogue as tools to resolve conflicts. The impact of teachers in promoting global citizenship among pupils through peace education is significant since these effects are not absolute for all pupils. This research proposes that demographics play an important role in shaping pupils' perception of peace education. Firstly, the role of gender is prominent in this regard. It was found that male pupils demonstrate socialization skills more than their female peers, thus encouraging a spirit of collaboration among team members (Fuselier & Jackson, 2010), hence showing a stronger impact on male pupils in peace education classes. On the other hand, a study (Cadsby et al., 2013) suggested that female pupils exhibit their competitive skills more than their cooperative skills. Another factor that controls the impact of peace education on pupils is their socioeconomic status (SES). Medeiros et al. (2021) concluded that the disposition to new ideas is very high among pupils from a higher socioeconomic background. This is because they have more opportunities to travel to different parts of the world and interact with diverse groups and cultures. The frequent interactions with audiences from different countries, nationalities, and cultures contribute to their understanding of global issues and their root causes. Moreover, it encourages them to rethink and realign their behavours and practices and make them inclusive, an important aspect of peace education (Shields et al., 2023).

Results

Quantitative data analysis was conducted and the scale was extracted from earlier studies (Gul et al., 2020). It was then adapted to the local context of this study.

Table 1

Demographic Information of the Participants

Table 1 shows that there were more male pupils in the sample (54%) than female pupils (46%). Moreover, slightly more participants came from higher socioeconomic schools (50.8%) than lower socioeconomic schools (49.2%). The data also revealed that most correct responses used in data analysis were provided by pupils enrolled in class 10 (56.3%) than the pupils enrolled in class 9 (43.7%).

Table 2

Descriptive Analysis and Data Normality (N=309)

Table 2 presents statistical information on the two dimensions related to peace education, namely 'Teachers' Role in Peace Education' (TRPE) and 'Pupils' Perception of Peace Education' (PPPE). For TRPE, the mean is 3.85 with a standard deviation of 0.54, indicating a moderate level of agreement among respondents. The skewness and kurtosis values indicate the symmetrical and normal distribution of data. Additionally, the standard errors provide insights into the precision of the estimates. Similarly, for pupils' perceptions, the mean is 3.46 with a slightly higher standard deviation of 0.64, indicating a wider range of responses. The skewness and kurtosis values suggest a normal distribution. These statistical measures provide a quantitative overview of the central tendency, variability, and distribution characteristics for the surveyed dimensions of peace education.

Table 3

Measurement Reliability Test

The internal consistency and reliability of the two constructs related to peace education were also measured using Cronbach's alpha (see Table 3). For TRPE, the calculated value of Cronbach's alpha is 0.73, indicating a moderate level of reliability. This suggests that the set of 7 items designed to measure TRPE demonstrates consistent inter-item reliability. Similarly, for PPPE, the higher Cronbach's alpha value of 0.81 suggests a higher level of internal consistency for the 19 items assessing pupils' perceptions. Cronbach's alpha values in both cases exceed the commonly accepted threshold of 0.70, indicating that the scales are reliable and the items within each construct measure a similar underlying trait.

Table 4

Correlation Coefficient

The correlation coefficient between TRPE and PPPE is 0.207**. Double asterisks indicate that this correlation is statistically significant. The positive correlation suggests a weak positive relationship between them. While the correlation remains statistically significant, the strength of the relationship is modest, indicating that other factors may also contribute to pupils' perceptions of peace education.

Table 5

ANOVA Table

Table 6

Regression Table

The ANOVA and regression outputs indicate the statistical significance of the model predicting PPPE based on the predictor variable TRPE. The ANOVA table demonstrates that the regression model accounts for a significant amount of variance in the outcome variable, as reflected by the F-statistic of 13.77 (p < 0.001). Regression coefficients reveal that the constant term is 2.52, indicating the estimated value of the dependent variable when the predictor variable is zero. The coefficient for TRPE is 0.24, with a standard error of 0.07, indicating a positive relationship. The standardized coefficient (beta) of 0.21 indicates a moderate difference between the groups. The t-value of 3.71 is statistically significant (p < 0.001), supporting the conclusion that TRPE significantly predicts PPPE. The 95% confidence interval for the coefficient ranges from 0.11 to 0.37, indicating a plausible range of values for the population parameter. To summarize, the regression model demonstrates that TRPE has a statistically significant and positive impact on PPPE.

Test of Pupils' Demographics on Pupils' Perception of Peace Education

Table 7

Pupils' Perception of Peace Education Practices by Gender

According to Table 7, a significant difference exists in the scores of male pupils (M = 3.64, SD = 0.54) and female pupils (M = 3.53, SD = 0.47); t(309) = 2, p = .003 regarding PPPE. These results suggest that male pupils have a stronger perception of peace education practices than female pupils.

Table 8

Pupils' Perception of Peace Education Practices by Class (t-test)

According to Table 8, there is no significant difference in the scores of the pupils studying in 9^th grade (M = 3.64, SD = 0.51) and those studying in 10^th grade (M = 3.56, SD = 0.50); t(309) = 1.45, p = .612 regarding their perception of practices to promote peace education. These results suggest that pupils have no difference in perception about the promotion of peace education.

Table 9

Pupils' Perception about Peace Education Practices by Socioeconomic Status (t-test)

According to Table 9, there is no significant difference in the scores of the pupils studying in high socioeconomic schools (M = 3.58, SD = 0.57) and low socioeconomic schools (M = 3.61, SD = 0.44); t(309) = -.46, p = 0.03 (95% CI = -0.14, 0.09) regarding their perception about practices to promote peace education. These results suggest that school type has no difference in perception about peace education promotion among pupils in Lahore, Pakistan.

Discussion

This research thoroughly examined the theoretical and analytical aspects of the role of teachers in fostering a positive perception of peace education among Pakistani school pupils. The ANOVA test results revealed a significant positive relationship between teachers' role in fostering a positive perception of peace education in pupils, with an F-statistic of 13.77 (p < 0.001). The findings of this research align with the existing literature suggesting that teachers can influence pupils' views on peace education (Zembylas & Loukaidis, 2021). Moreover, prospective teachers stressed that teachers who teach peace education must possess the characteristics of a peacemaker. Presumably, peace educators should demonstrate the traits of self-confidence, self-respect, empathy, patience, acceptance, unbiasedness, and approaching a problem with an objective view more often in their everyday lives, in classrooms, in schools, and in different personal interactions outside schools. The demonstration of these traits in different settings, in schools, and outside schools, affects pupils' behavior and promotes the inculcation of these traits among them (Buchori et al., 2021).

The findings also lead to some suggestions for preservice and in-service teacher education programs. It is suggested that both pre-service and in-service teacher preparation programs should initiate activities encouraging the development of critical thinking and problem-solving skills in both newly trained teachers and experienced teachers. These skills are important because all countries are faced with a wide range of conflicts (ethnic, religious, cultural) and discrimination. These require genuine solutions both at the individual, societal, and state levels. Indeed, schools are the first place to initiate discussions and to work on such solutions, as they are least affected by political groups. The preservice and in-service teacher education programs equip teachers with the knowledge and skills required to develop the skills and dispositions needed for the holistic development of pupils, as well as the development of a holistic worldview (Anderson, 2021; Higgins & Novelli, 2020).

This study showed a stronger disposition towards peace education among male pupils than female pupils. The former were open to engage in activities aimed at developing cooperation, coordination, and team-building attributes. Hence, it is argued that teacher educators and teacher trainers should use sports-based activities or activities requiring physical movement to develop cooperation, coordination, and team-building attributes among pupils. Since male pupils are more open to such activities than their female peers, it suggests that these activities have a higher level of acceptance and participation among them (Durdu, 2020; Prensky, 2016).

Literature suggests that socioeconomic status (SES) is another factor that contributes to the acceptance of peace education activities in the classroom. This is because pupils from higher SES are more open to accepting differences since they have more opportunities to travel, meet, and interact with different nationalities, ethnicities, religious, and cultural groups, as compared to the pupils with lower SES (Shields et al., 2023). However, the findings of this research suggest that in the modern era, peace education has become a global phenomenon and all pupils have developed a positive perception of peace education. Moreover, schools of all types are more concerned about global citizenship and peace education. The curriculum, teachers, and the staff in their entirety are concerned about incorporating peace education skills and values into the pupils. This study also found that junior and senior classes have the same perception level of peace education. Although it was expected that the senior class would have a higher perception of peace education, the data showed contrary results. This indicates that modern institutions are promoting peace education practices from an early age. Therefore, the perception of peace education is consistent among 9^th and 10^th grade pupils.

Theory Implications

This study sheds light on the influence of teachers on pupils' perceptions of peace education, which has significant theoretical implications. It supports the previous studies that emphasized the varied influence of teachers on pupils' cognitive, affective, and behavioral development (Su et al., 2021). The findings extend the theoretical frameworks that show how peace-oriented teachers can influence education (McConnell et al., 2021). This research enhances the theoretical discourses on the socializing role of educational institutions by demonstrating that teachers actively engaged in peace education significantly influence pupils' perspectives. It reinforces the idea that instructors transmit societal values, which helps to understand how educational dynamics shape individual views on important social issues. Arguably, classrooms reflect the miniature version of the society and the global world (Tattersall, 2020) where all kinds of differences, including religious, ethnic, socioeconomic, and sociocultural differences, are visible. The teachers are the force in classrooms that shapes and influences pupils' behaviors, dispositions, attitudes, and worldviews, resulting in their holistic development. This entails the inculcation of pluralistic and inclusive worldviews, demonstrating the values of acceptance, objectivity in analyzing a problem, and finding its solution (Zainal et al., 2021).

Practical Implications

This research highlights the importance of integrating peace education programs and peace education activities into the formal school curriculum, broadening the scope of such programs and activities planned by schools and teachers. The activities may comprise curricular and co-curricular workshops and sessions for teachers to support them in their pedagogical practices that inculcate critical thinking through critical peace pedagogical practices. This research also recommends teacher education institutes to prepare prospective teachers equipped with sufficient skills to use their pedagogical practices to cultivate inclusive worldviews and promote conflict resolution strategies through their formal teacher education curriculum and cocurricular activities and workshops.

Limitations and Future Research Directions

This study is a valuable contribution to the already existing research on teachers' engagement with pupils in order to inculcate in them the values of inclusivity, acceptance of diversity, and empathy through the use of critical pedagogy practices in classrooms. This study also recommends that longitudinal studies help researchers to explore the relationship between teachers' peace education and pedagogical practices and pupils' perceptions and receptions of values communicated to them through classroom pedagogical practices. Although this study used a survey questionnaire to measure pupils' perceptions of peace education and teachers' role in peace education, other researchers could integrate quantitative data with qualitative data (observations and interviews) to triangulate both types of data in order to supplement the findings from the quantitative data. It is also recommended that future research should expand the scope of the current research from classroom pedagogical practices and include other factors contributing to shaping pupils' values and skill-set. A comparative analysis across cultural and educational contexts would illuminate how cultural and institutional differences affect teachers' peace education, making it more internationally applicable.

Conclusion

This study aimed to evaluate the influence of teachers' pedagogical practices and their impact on shaping pupils' perceptions of teachers' pedagogical practices and peace education. It found evidence suggesting that teachers' pedagogical practices play a key role in shaping values such as empathy, collaborative working, social justice, inclusivity, and acceptance of diversity in classroom settings. Moreover, it was established that pupils' gender and SES influenced their disposition to the messages of peace communicated to them through the selection of pedagogical practices and their effective use. Furthermore, there is a need to incorporate peace values in the preservice teacher education programs and in-service training sessions for teachers, equipping them with the skills to cultivate inclusive values needed to live, study, and work in diverse classrooms and a diverse world.

Conflict of Interest

The author of the manuscript has no financial or non-financial conflict of interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.

Data Availability Statement

The data associated with this study will be provided by the corresponding author upon request.

Finding details

This research did not receive grant from any funding source or agency.