Neo-Islamophobia: A New Western Social Order
Keywords:
Islamophobia, neo-Islamophobia, prejudice, racism, securitization
Abstract
Abstract Views: 230
Traditionally, the term Islamophobia refers to prejudice, racism, and/or securitization which implies that this phenomenon operates at cognitive, cultural, or structural levels. The current researchers anticipate that the term now represents an Islamophobic social order in the West where hatred for Islam and everything related to it appears to be the collective behaviour of the society. This points to a new social reality that goes beyond the psychological problem, now referred to as Islamophobia. Therefore, the researchers have added the prefix "neo" to this term in order to account for Islamophobia's psychosocial nature which manifests itself in discourses and practices. The purpose of this research is to study Islamophobic discourses in the media of two Western societies in order to better understand the nature of Islamophobia in each: the United Kingdom (UK) and the United States (USA). It studies leading articles (that is, 446 in toto) from The Independent and The Washington Post between November 2016 and December 2017, using DHA's analytical framework. This study concludes that traditional "Islamophobia" dominates in the UK context, where Islam is perceived as a threat to Europe's symbolic identity and "Neo-Islamophobia" in the US context, where Islam is seen as a threat to the socio-political order. It also proposes a cyclical process of neo-Islamophobia, beginning with problematizing Islam, and progressing to “otherizing,” racializing, and finally securitizing Muslims. The researchers, however, recommend similar studies in other contexts too.
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References
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Hauslohner, Abigail. "Core of Trump's Islam Stance Has What Once Were Considered Radical Seeds." The Washington Post, November 6 2016, A04.
———. "'It's a Spiritual Battle of Good and Evil'." The Washington Post, February 19 2017, A04.
Hauslohner, Abigail; Moyer, Justin Wm. "Anti-Muslim Activists Fan out in U.S." The Washington Post, June 11 2017, A03.
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Iogna-Prat, Dominique. Order & Exclusion: Cluny and Christendom Face Heresy, Judaism, and Islam, 1000-1150. Cornell University Press, 2002.
Iqbal, Zafar. "Islamophobia or Islamophobias: Towards Developing a Process Model." Islamic Studies 49, no. 1 (2010): 81-101.
———. Islamophobia: History, Context and Deconstruction. India: SAGE, 2020.
Jaffe, Greg; Miller, Greg. "Trump's Generals See World as Good Vs. Evil." The Washington Post, December 11 2016, A01.
Janosik, Daniel J. John of Damascus, First Apologist to the Muslims: The Trinity and Christian Apologetics in the Early Islamic Period. Eugene, Oregon: PICKWICK, 2016.
Kalin, Ibrahim. "Roots of Misconception: Euro-American Perceptions of Islam before and after September 11." Islam, fundamentalism, and the betrayal of tradition (2004): 143-87.
Kritzeck, James Aloysius. Peter the Venerable and Islam. New Jersey Princeton University Press, 1964.
Lamothe, Dan. "Trump Selects Mattis for Defense Chief." The Washington Post, December 2 2016, A01.
Lean, Nathan. The Islamophobia Industry: How the Right Manufactures Hatred of Muslims. 2nd ed. London: Pluto Press, 2017.
Levin, Paul. Turkey and the European Union: Christian and Secular Images of Islam. Springer, 2011.
Lewis, Bernard. Islam and the West. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.
López, Fernando. "Towards a Definition of Islamophobia: Approximations of the Early Twentieth Century." Ethnic and Racial Studies 34, no. 4 (2011): 556-73.
Lyon, David. The Culture of Surveillance: Watching as a Way of Life. John Wiley & Sons, 2018.
Mandaville, Peter, and Shadi Hamid. "Islam as Statecraft: How Governments Use Religion in Foreign Policy." MIDDLE EAST (2018).
Mautner, Gerlinde. "Analyzing Newspapers, Magazines and Other Print Media." In Qualitative Discourse Analysis in the Social Sciences, edited by Ruth; Wodak and Michal Krzyzanowski, 30-53. China: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.
Menkhaus, K. "A Diplomatic Surge to Stop Somalia’s Famine." Enough Policy Briefing (2011).
Messina, Anthony M. "‘Securitizing’ Immigration in Europe: Sending Them the Same (Old) Message, Getting the Same (Old) Reply?". In Handbook on Migration and Social Policy: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2016.
Miles, Robert, and Malcolm Brown. Racism. Second ed. London: Routledge, 2003.
Murji, Karim, and John Solomos. Introduction: Racialization in Theory and Practice. Oxford University Press, 2005.
Oswald, Debra L. "Understanding Anti‐Arab Reactions Post‐9/11: The Role of Threats, Social Categories, and Personal Ideologies1." Journal of Applied Social Psychology 35, no. 9 (2005): 1775-99.
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Penn, Michael Philip. When Christians First Met Muslims: A Sourcebook of the Earliest Syriac Writings on Islam. University of California Press, 2015.
Pratt, Douglas. "Islam as Feared Other: Perception and Reaction." In Fear of Muslims?, 31-43: Springer, 2016.
Quinn, Frederick. The Sum of All Heresies. The Image of Islam in Western Thought. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.
Qurashi, Fahid. "The Prevent Strategy and the Uk ‘War on Terror’: Embedding Infrastructures of Surveillance in Muslim Communities." Palgrave Communications 4, no. 1 (2018): 1-13.
Rakic, Marko, and Dragisa Jurisic. "Wahhabism as a Militant Form of Islam on Europe's Doorstep." Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 35, no. 9 (2012): 650-63.
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Rhodes, D Bryan. "John Damascene in Context: An Examination of" the Heresy of the Ishmaelites" with Special Consideration Given to the Religious, Political, and Social Contexts During the Seventh and Eighth Century Arab Conquests." Liberty Baptist Theological Seminary, 2009.
Robinson, Glenn E. Global Jihad: A Brief History. Stanford University Press, 2020.
Rogin, Josh. "A Workable Homeland Plan for Trump." The Washington Post, December 5 2016, A19.
Rojo, Luisa Martin. "Division and Rejection: From the Personification of the Gulf Conflict to the Demonization of Saddam Hussein." Discourse & Society 6, no. 1 (1995): 49-80.
Rosado, Caleb. "The Undergirding Factor Is Power: Toward an Understanding of Prejudice and Racism." Critical Multicultural Pavilion: Research Room - Edchange Project 2018, no. February 2 (1998).
Said, Edward W. "Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World." New York: Pantheon (1981).
———. Culture and Imperialism. New York: Vintage, 1994.
———. Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books, 1978.
Sayyid, Salman. "A Measure of Islamophobia." Islamophobia Studies Journal 2, no. 1 (2014): 10-25.
Sayyid, Salman, and AbdoolKarim Vakil. Thinking through Islamophobia: Global Perspectives. Cinco Puntos Press, 2010.
Schulson, Michael. "Why Do So Many Americans Believe That Islam Is a Political Ideology, Not a Religion?" The Washington Post, February 11 2017, B02.
Shuja, Sharif M. "Islamic Revolution in Iran and the American Media." Pakistan Horizon 35, no. 3 (1982): 60-66.
Staszak, Jean-Francois. "Other/Othernes." International Encyclopedia of Human Geography (2008).
Tibi, Bassam. "The Totalitarianism of Jihadist Islamism and Its Challenge to Europe and to Islam." Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions 8, no. 1 (2007): 35-54.
Tolan, John. Saracens: Islam in the Medieval European Imagination. Columbia University Press, 2002.
van Dijk, Teun A. "New (S) Racism: A Discourse Analytical Approach." Ethnic minorities and the media 37 (2000): 33-49.
Vultee, Fred. "Securitization as a Theory of Media Effects: The Contest over the Framing of Political Violence." University of Missouri, 2007.
Vuorinen, Marja. "Introduction: Enemy Images as Inversions of the Self." In Enemy Images in War Propaganda, edited by Marja Vuorinen, 1-13: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2012.
Warrick, Joby. "Islamic State's Goal: Using Fear to Drive a Wedge between Muslims and Others." The Washington Post, December 21 2016, A01.
Warrick, Joby; Hauslohner, Abigail. "National Security Choices Stoke Muslim Fears of an Anti-Islamic White House." The Washington Post, November 20 2016, A01.
Weiss, Robert. "England and the Decree of the Council of Vienne on the Teaching of Greek, Arabic, Hebrew, and Syriac." Bibliothèque d'humanisme et Renaissance 14, no. 1 (1952): 1-9.
Wheatcroft, Andrew. Infidels: A History of the Conflict between Christendom and Islam. New York: Random House, 2005.
Wodak, Ruth, and Martin Reisigl. Discourse and Discrimination: Rhetorics of Racism and Antisemitism. Routledge, 2001.
Allen-Ebrahimian, Bethany. "U.S. Muslims' Defense: The Constitution." The Washington Post, February 10 2017, A17.
Allport, Gordon Willard. The Nature of Prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1954.
Alvi, Hayat. "The Diffusion of Intra-Islamic Violence and Terrorism: The Impact of the Proliferation of Salafi/Wahhabi Ideologies." Middle East Review of International Affairs (Online) 18, no. 2 (2014): 38.
Amin-Khan, Tariq. "New Orientalism, Securitisation and the Western Media's Incendiary Racism." Third World Quarterly 33, no. 9 (2012): 1595-610.
Baker, Paul, Costas Gabrielatos, and Tony McEnery. Discourse Analysis and Media Attitudes: The Representation of Islam in the British Press. Cambridge University Press, 2013.
Balzacq, Thierry, Sarah Léonard, and Jan Ruzicka. "‘Securitization’revisited: Theory and Cases." International relations 30, no. 4 (2016): 494-531.
Baysal, Başar. "20 Years of Securitization: Strengths, Limitations and a New Dual Framework." Uluslararasi Iliskiler 17, no. 67 (2020): 3-20. https://doi.org/https://dx.doi.org/10.33458/uidergisi.777338.
Bazian, Hatem. "Islamophobia,“Clash of Civilizations”, and Forging a Post-Cold War Order!". Religions 9, no. 9 (2018): 282.
Beydoun, Khaled A. American Islamophobia: Understanding the Roots and Rise of Fear. Univ of California Press, 2018.
Bigo, Didier, and Anastassia Tsoukala. Terror, Insecurity and Liberty: Illiberal Practices of Liberal Regimes after 9/11. Routledge Studies in Liberty and Security. Edited by Didier Bigo, Elspeth Guild and R.B.J. Walker. London: Routledge, 2008.
Bleich, Erik. "What Is Islamophobia and How Much Is There? Theorizing and Measuring an Emerging Comparative Concept." American Behavioral Scientist 55, no. 12 (2011): 1581-600.
Boswell, Christina. "Migration Control in Europe after 9/11: Explaining the Absence of Securitization." JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies 45, no. 3 (2007): 589-610.
Brons, Lajos L. "Othering, an Analysis." Transcience. A Journal of Global Studies 6, no. 1 (2015): 69-70.
Buzan, Barry, Jaap De Wilde, and Ole Wæver. Security: A New Framework for Analysis. Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1998.
Carr, James, and Amanda Haynes. "A Clash of Racializations: The Policing of ‘Race’ and of Anti-Muslim Racism in Ireland." Critical Sociology 41, no. 1 (2015): 21-40.
Carvalho, Anabela. "Media (Ted) Discourse and Society: Rethinking the Framework of Critical Discourse Analysis." Journalism Studies 9, no. 2 (2008): 161-77.
Castillo, Andrea, and Fresno Bee. "Fresno Islamic Cultural Center Receives Letter Threatening Muslim Genocide, Praising Trump." Fresno Bee, November 28 2016.
Chase Jr, Frederic H. "Trans. The Fathers of the Church: Saint John of Damascus Writings, Vol. 37." Washington, DC: CUA Press, 1958.
Chilton, Paul. "Analysing Political Discourse. London and New York." Routledge, 2004.
Cockburn, Patrick. "It Is Pious and Inaccurate to Say Abedi's Actions Had 'Nothing to Do with Islam'." The Independent - Daily Edition, May 25 2017, 9.
Constable, Olivia Remie. "Regulating Religious Noise: The Council of Vienne, the Mosque Call and Muslim Pilgrimage in the Late Medieval Mediterranean World." Medieval Encounters 16, no. 1 (2010): 64-95.
Conway, Gordon. Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All. Runnymede Trust London, 1997.
Croft, Stuart. Securitizing Islam: Identity and the Search for Security. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
Daniel, Norman. "Crusade Propaganda." In A History of the Crusades: The Impact of the Crusades on Europe edited by H. W. Hazard & N. P. Zacour (Eds.), 39-97: Madison: University of Wisconsin Press., 1989.
Diehl, Jackson. "Waging a War against Islam." The Washington Post, December 12 2016, A13.
Dillon, Michael R. "Wahhabism: Is It a Factor in the Spread of Global Terrorism." Naval Postgraduate School Monterey CA, 2009.
Durkheim, Emile. The Rules of Sociological Method. Edited by Steven Lukes. New York: The Free Press, 1982.
Elahi, Farah, and Omar Khan. "Islamophobia: Still a Challenge for Us All." London: Runnymede Trust (2017).
Esposito, John L. "Foreword." In Fear of Muslims?: International Perspectives on Islamophobia, edited by Douglas Pratt and Rachel Woodlock, v-vii. Switzerland: Springer, 2016.
Foucault, Michel. "Discourse and Truth-the Problematization of Parrhesia." (1983).
Fuchs, Chris. "Reported Anti-Muslim Hate Incidents, Rhetoric Rose in Year after Election, Report Finds." NBC News Digital, Feb. 1 2018.
General, Lieutenant, Michael T Flynn, and Michael Ledeen. The Field of Fight: How We Can Win the Global War against Radical Islam and Its Allies. St. Martin's Press, 2016.
Green, Todd H. The Fear of Islam: An Introduction to Islamophobia in the West. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2015.
Hauslohner, Abigail. "Core of Trump's Islam Stance Has What Once Were Considered Radical Seeds." The Washington Post, November 6 2016, A04.
———. "'It's a Spiritual Battle of Good and Evil'." The Washington Post, February 19 2017, A04.
Hauslohner, Abigail; Moyer, Justin Wm. "Anti-Muslim Activists Fan out in U.S." The Washington Post, June 11 2017, A03.
Henry, Frances, and Carol Tator. The Colour of Democracy: Racism in Canadian Society,(3rd Edn.) Thomson Nelson: Toronto. Canada: Thomson Nelson, 2006.
Iogna-Prat, Dominique. Order & Exclusion: Cluny and Christendom Face Heresy, Judaism, and Islam, 1000-1150. Cornell University Press, 2002.
Iqbal, Zafar. "Islamophobia or Islamophobias: Towards Developing a Process Model." Islamic Studies 49, no. 1 (2010): 81-101.
———. Islamophobia: History, Context and Deconstruction. India: SAGE, 2020.
Jaffe, Greg; Miller, Greg. "Trump's Generals See World as Good Vs. Evil." The Washington Post, December 11 2016, A01.
Janosik, Daniel J. John of Damascus, First Apologist to the Muslims: The Trinity and Christian Apologetics in the Early Islamic Period. Eugene, Oregon: PICKWICK, 2016.
Kalin, Ibrahim. "Roots of Misconception: Euro-American Perceptions of Islam before and after September 11." Islam, fundamentalism, and the betrayal of tradition (2004): 143-87.
Kritzeck, James Aloysius. Peter the Venerable and Islam. New Jersey Princeton University Press, 1964.
Lamothe, Dan. "Trump Selects Mattis for Defense Chief." The Washington Post, December 2 2016, A01.
Lean, Nathan. The Islamophobia Industry: How the Right Manufactures Hatred of Muslims. 2nd ed. London: Pluto Press, 2017.
Levin, Paul. Turkey and the European Union: Christian and Secular Images of Islam. Springer, 2011.
Lewis, Bernard. Islam and the West. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.
López, Fernando. "Towards a Definition of Islamophobia: Approximations of the Early Twentieth Century." Ethnic and Racial Studies 34, no. 4 (2011): 556-73.
Lyon, David. The Culture of Surveillance: Watching as a Way of Life. John Wiley & Sons, 2018.
Mandaville, Peter, and Shadi Hamid. "Islam as Statecraft: How Governments Use Religion in Foreign Policy." MIDDLE EAST (2018).
Mautner, Gerlinde. "Analyzing Newspapers, Magazines and Other Print Media." In Qualitative Discourse Analysis in the Social Sciences, edited by Ruth; Wodak and Michal Krzyzanowski, 30-53. China: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.
Menkhaus, K. "A Diplomatic Surge to Stop Somalia’s Famine." Enough Policy Briefing (2011).
Messina, Anthony M. "‘Securitizing’ Immigration in Europe: Sending Them the Same (Old) Message, Getting the Same (Old) Reply?". In Handbook on Migration and Social Policy: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2016.
Miles, Robert, and Malcolm Brown. Racism. Second ed. London: Routledge, 2003.
Murji, Karim, and John Solomos. Introduction: Racialization in Theory and Practice. Oxford University Press, 2005.
Oswald, Debra L. "Understanding Anti‐Arab Reactions Post‐9/11: The Role of Threats, Social Categories, and Personal Ideologies1." Journal of Applied Social Psychology 35, no. 9 (2005): 1775-99.
Patel, Eboo. "Foreword." In Presumed Guilty: Why We Shouldn't Ask Muslims to Condemn Terrorism, edited by Todd H Green: Fortress Press, 2018.
Penn, Michael Philip. When Christians First Met Muslims: A Sourcebook of the Earliest Syriac Writings on Islam. University of California Press, 2015.
Pratt, Douglas. "Islam as Feared Other: Perception and Reaction." In Fear of Muslims?, 31-43: Springer, 2016.
Quinn, Frederick. The Sum of All Heresies. The Image of Islam in Western Thought. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.
Qurashi, Fahid. "The Prevent Strategy and the Uk ‘War on Terror’: Embedding Infrastructures of Surveillance in Muslim Communities." Palgrave Communications 4, no. 1 (2018): 1-13.
Rakic, Marko, and Dragisa Jurisic. "Wahhabism as a Militant Form of Islam on Europe's Doorstep." Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 35, no. 9 (2012): 650-63.
Ramadan, Hisham. "Conflicts of Rights: Free Speech, Freedom to Practise a Religion, and the Social Phobia Mighty Machine." Chap. 2 In Manufacturing Phobias: The Political Production of Fear in Theory and Practice, edited by Hisham Ramadan and Jeff Shantz, 27-50: University of Toronto Press, 2016.
Resnick, Irven M. The Fathers of the Church: Medieval Continuation (Peter the Venerable: Writings against the Saracens). Vol. 16, Washington, D.C.: CUA Press, 2016.
Rhodes, D Bryan. "John Damascene in Context: An Examination of" the Heresy of the Ishmaelites" with Special Consideration Given to the Religious, Political, and Social Contexts During the Seventh and Eighth Century Arab Conquests." Liberty Baptist Theological Seminary, 2009.
Robinson, Glenn E. Global Jihad: A Brief History. Stanford University Press, 2020.
Rogin, Josh. "A Workable Homeland Plan for Trump." The Washington Post, December 5 2016, A19.
Rojo, Luisa Martin. "Division and Rejection: From the Personification of the Gulf Conflict to the Demonization of Saddam Hussein." Discourse & Society 6, no. 1 (1995): 49-80.
Rosado, Caleb. "The Undergirding Factor Is Power: Toward an Understanding of Prejudice and Racism." Critical Multicultural Pavilion: Research Room - Edchange Project 2018, no. February 2 (1998).
Said, Edward W. "Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World." New York: Pantheon (1981).
———. Culture and Imperialism. New York: Vintage, 1994.
———. Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books, 1978.
Sayyid, Salman. "A Measure of Islamophobia." Islamophobia Studies Journal 2, no. 1 (2014): 10-25.
Sayyid, Salman, and AbdoolKarim Vakil. Thinking through Islamophobia: Global Perspectives. Cinco Puntos Press, 2010.
Schulson, Michael. "Why Do So Many Americans Believe That Islam Is a Political Ideology, Not a Religion?" The Washington Post, February 11 2017, B02.
Shuja, Sharif M. "Islamic Revolution in Iran and the American Media." Pakistan Horizon 35, no. 3 (1982): 60-66.
Staszak, Jean-Francois. "Other/Othernes." International Encyclopedia of Human Geography (2008).
Tibi, Bassam. "The Totalitarianism of Jihadist Islamism and Its Challenge to Europe and to Islam." Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions 8, no. 1 (2007): 35-54.
Tolan, John. Saracens: Islam in the Medieval European Imagination. Columbia University Press, 2002.
van Dijk, Teun A. "New (S) Racism: A Discourse Analytical Approach." Ethnic minorities and the media 37 (2000): 33-49.
Vultee, Fred. "Securitization as a Theory of Media Effects: The Contest over the Framing of Political Violence." University of Missouri, 2007.
Vuorinen, Marja. "Introduction: Enemy Images as Inversions of the Self." In Enemy Images in War Propaganda, edited by Marja Vuorinen, 1-13: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2012.
Warrick, Joby. "Islamic State's Goal: Using Fear to Drive a Wedge between Muslims and Others." The Washington Post, December 21 2016, A01.
Warrick, Joby; Hauslohner, Abigail. "National Security Choices Stoke Muslim Fears of an Anti-Islamic White House." The Washington Post, November 20 2016, A01.
Weiss, Robert. "England and the Decree of the Council of Vienne on the Teaching of Greek, Arabic, Hebrew, and Syriac." Bibliothèque d'humanisme et Renaissance 14, no. 1 (1952): 1-9.
Wheatcroft, Andrew. Infidels: A History of the Conflict between Christendom and Islam. New York: Random House, 2005.
Wodak, Ruth, and Martin Reisigl. Discourse and Discrimination: Rhetorics of Racism and Antisemitism. Routledge, 2001.
Published
2023-06-20
How to Cite
Tariq, Muhammad, and Zafar Iqbal. 2023. “Neo-Islamophobia: A New Western Social Order”. Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization 13 (1), 133-56. https://doi.org/10.32350/jitc.131.10.
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Articles
Copyright (c) 2023 Muhammad Tariq Awan, Zafar Iqbal
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work’s authorship and initial publication in this journal.
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