Transnational Illicit Finance: How Dirty Money Undermines Electoral Legitimacy in Nigeria and India

Meshach Rizama Zhizhi; Able Shibinya Zhizhi; Micah Agih

doi:10.32350/gsr.51.04

Authors

Meshach Rizama Zhizhi Prince Abubakar Audu University, Kogi State, Nigeria https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6175-7865
Able Shibinya Zhizhi Prince Abubakar Audu University, Kogi State, Nigeria
Micah Agih Prince Abubakar Audu University

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.32350/gsr.51.04

Keywords:

campaign finance transparency, electoral legitimacy, political patronage, transnational illicit finance, vote buying

Abstract

The growing influence of transnational illicit finance in electoral politics poses an urgent threat to democratic legitimacy in emerging democracies. The research objective is to examine how illicit financial flows shape electoral outcomes in Nigeria and India, and assess their impact on democratic legitimacy and public trust in electoral institutions. The study employs a qualitative comparative case study design, drawing on secondary data from election observation reports, anti-corruption agency publications, academic articles, books, and reports by international organizations such as Transparency International and the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance. Data were analyzed through qualitative content analysis to identify patterns, themes, and relationships in illicit financing practices. Key findings indicate that in Nigeria, vote buying prevalence increased from fifteen percent in 2015 to twenty-two percent in 2023, driven by cash inducements, public fund diversion, and money laundering, leading to electoral manipulation, reduced voter trust, and entrenched patronage networks. In conclusion, illicit financial flows undermine electoral legitimacy by distorting competition and eroding institutional credibility in both contexts. The study's novelty lies in its comparative cross-regional analysis of Nigeria and India, bridging literature on illicit financial flows, electoral corruption, and political economy to highlight transnational dimensions and shared vulnerabilities in large multiethnic democracies.Scholarly contributions advance understanding of financial power's interaction with democratic processes beyond single-country studies, while policy contributions emphasize the need for stronger transparency laws, enforcement of anti-corruption measures, and civic education to protect electoral integrity.

Keywords: transnational illicit finance; electoral legitimacy; vote buying; political patronage; campaign finance transparency

JEL Classification: D72, F59, K42, P16, D73

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

0

Author Biography

Meshach Rizama Zhizhi, Prince Abubakar Audu University, Kogi State, Nigeria

Meshach Rizama Zhizhi, PhD, is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Political Science, Prince Abubakar Audu University, Kogi State, Nigeria. He holds a PhD in Political Science (International Relations) and a Master’s degree in Development Studies (Community Development). He has extensive experience in teaching and supervising undergraduate and postgraduate research. His research interests include international relations, political economy, governance and public policy, electoral studies, and development studies, with a particular focus on democratic governance, global political economy, and socio-economic development in Nigeria and other developing societies. He has supervised over one hundred undergraduate and postgraduate diploma research projects, many of which address critical issues in governance, health, and development.

References

Aidt, T. S., & Jensen, P. S. (2017). From open to secret ballot: Vote buying and modernization. Comparative Political Studies, 50(5), 555–593. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414016628268

Amadu, A.-S., & Ibrahim, N. T. O. (2025). Campaign finance and political corruption: Comparative lessons from Ghana, South Africa, Nigeria, and the United States. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, 9(7), 4795–4811. https://doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.907000388

Bayer, P., & Urpelainen, J. (2016). It is all about political incentives: Democracy and the renewable feed-in tariff. The Journal of Politics, 78(2), 603–619. https://doi.org/10.1086/684791

Björkman, L. (2013). “You can’t buy a vote”: Cash and community in a Mumbai election (MMG Working Paper No. 13-01). Max Planck Institute for the Study of Religious and Ethnic Diversity. https://www.mmg.mpg.de/60549/wp-13-01

Chhibber, P. K., & Verma, R. (2018). Ideology and identity: The changing party systems of India. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190623876.001.0001

Ezeabasili, I. E. (2025). Vote buying and the integrity of 2019 and 2023 general elections in Nigeria. European Journal of Science, Innovation and Technology, 5(1), 97–102. https://www.ejsit-journal.com/index.php/ejsit/article/view/605

Ganguly, Š., & Mistree, D. (Eds.). (2025). The Hoover Institution’s survey of India. Hoover Institution Press. https://www.hoover.org/research/hoover-institutions-survey-india

Ganuthula, V. R. R., & Balaraman, K. K. (2025). The nexus of money and political legitimacy: A comparative analysis of democracies and non-democracies [Preprint]. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2505.09128

Kar, D. (2011). An empirical study on the transfer of black money from India: 1948–2008. Economic and Political Weekly, 46(15), 45–54. https://www.epw.in/journal/2011/15/special-articles/empirical-study-transfer-black-money-india-1948-2008.html

Kleinheksel, A. J., Rockich-Winston, N., Tawfik, H., & Wyatt, T. R. (2020). Demystifying content analysis. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 84(1), 127–137. https://doi.org/10.5688/ajpe7113

Mitra, A., & Mitra, S. (2025). Cash for votes: Evidence from India. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 74(1), 213–239. https://doi.org/10.1086/735574

Norris, P., & Grömping, M. (2019). Electoral integrity worldwide: The Electoral Integrity Project 2019 report. Electoral Integrity Project, University of Sydney. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.15294.33603

Norris, P., & van Es, A. A. (Eds.) (2016). Checkbook elections? Political finance in comparative perspective. Oxford University Press.

Onapajo, H., Francis, S., & Okeke-Uzodike, U. (2015). Oil corrupts elections: The political economy of vote-buying in Nigeria. African Studies Quarterly, 15(2), 1–22. https://journals.flvc.org/ASQ/article/view/136152

Schnurr, E. (2022). Role of money in campaigns and elections. In D. Schultz and J. Toplak (Eds.), Routledge handbook of election law (pp. 147–159). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429401800-13

Semiatin, R. J. (Ed.). (2020). Campaigns on the cutting edge (4th ed.). CQ Press.

Tagowa, W. N., Masoyi, A. D., Peter, Z., & Tyavee, W. J. (2022). Campaign financing and corruption during 2015 general elections in Taraba State, Nigeria. Fuwukari Journal of Social Sciences, 1(1), 1–22. https://fuwjss.com/journal/index/archives/965

Thakurta, P. G., & Jain, S. (2017). Thin dividing line: India, Mauritius and global illicit financial flows. Penguin Random House India.

Tukura, P. T., Zhizhi, M. R., & Sekpe, S. S. (2023). The impact of currency redesign on vote buying and the quality of the electoral process in the 2023 general elections in Nigeria. In C. U. Idoko, A. Ogidiolu, E. K. Enojo, I. N. Mohammed, O. Idoko, & D. Amana (Eds.), Naira redesign, national security and sustainable development: Book of edited proceedings from the 2nd International Conference (pp. 122–131). Faculty of Social Sciences, Prince Abubakar Audu University.

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2019). Corruption in Nigeria: Patterns and trends—Second survey on corruption as experienced by the population. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/statistics/corruption/nigeria/Corruption_in_Nigeria_2019_standard_res_11MB.pdf

Vaishnav, M. (2017). When crime pays: Money and muscle in Indian politics. Yale University Press.

Vittal, N. (2003). Corruption in India: The roadblock to national prosperity. Academic Foundation.

Wager, E., & Kleinert, S. (2011). Responsible research publication: International standards for authors. In T. Mayer and N. Steneck (Eds.), Promoting research integrity in a global environment (pp. 309–316). Imperial College Press/World Scientific Publishing.

Yoganandham, G. (2025). India’s expanding electoral landscape with reference to demographic shifts, electoral malpractices, and reforms for sustainable democracy: A comprehensive assessment. Journal for Basic Sciences, 25(9), 179–211. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17113817