Risk Factors and Prevalence of Contrast Sensitivity Impairment among Commercial Motor-Vehicle Drivers in Benin City Metropolis, Edo State, Nigeria
Keywords:
Contrast Sensitivity, Low Contrast, Pelli-Robson, Road Traffic Accident, Commercial Drivers
Abstract
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Background: Contrast sensitivity (CS) is an innate ability of the eyes to discern a variation in luminance or brightness between an object and its background in a certain locations within a space. CS is important for a variety of situations when driving, including recognizing lane markers, road signs, and oncoming traffic especially in low contrast environments—such as at night or in bad weather. This study aimed to determine the risk factors and prevalence of contrast sensitivity impairment among commercial motor-vehicle drivers in Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria.
Methods: This was a cross-sectional study of 341 commercial motor-vehicle drivers aged ≥ 20 years in Benin City using purposive random sampling technique. Data were collected using a modified National Eye Institute Vision Functioning Questionnaire–25. Pelli-Robson test was done to assess contrast sensitivity. Data was analysed using IBM-SPSS version 29.0, and Chi-square test was used to observe significant differences between contrast sensitivity and associated risk factors.
Results: A total of 341 commercial drivers participated in the study. Males were 326 (95.6%) and females were 15 (4.4%). The prevalence of contrast sensitivity impairment was 21.7%, and increases with increase in age from 7.9% among age groups 20 – 30 years to 48.0% among age group > 60 years. Higher educational level was found to decrease CS impairment.
Conclusion: The high prevalence of CS in this study could be a threat to safe driving especially in low contrast environments. Routine CS assessment of drivers is recommended prior to issuance of driver’s license and relicensing.
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References
REFERENCES
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23. Chung S, Legge G. Comparing the shape of contrast sensitivity functions for normal and low vision. Invest Ophthal_mol Vis Sci. 2016;57:198–207. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26795826/
24. Pang Y, Allen M, Robinson J, Frantz K. Contrast sensitivity of amblyopic eyes in children with myopic anisometropia. Clin Exp Optom. 2019;102:57–62. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30054940/
25. Haliza A, Muziman Syah M, Norliza M. Visual problems of new malaysian drivers. Malays Fam Physician [Internet]. 2010;5(2):95–98. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25606195/
26. Wood J, Owens D. Standard measures of visual acuity do not predict drivers’ recognition performance under day or night conditions. Optom Vis Sci. 2005;82:698–705. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16127335/
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28. Wood J. Age and visual impairment decrease driving performance as measured on a closed-road circuit. Hum Factors. 2002;44(3):482–494. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12502165/
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30. Oladehinde M, Adeoye A, Adegbehingbe B, Al E. Visual functions of commercial drivers in relation to road accidents in Nigeria. Indian J Occup Env Med. 2007;11:71–75. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3168100/
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1. World Health Organization. World report on road traffic injury prevention. World report on road traffic injury prevention 2004. WHO [Internet]. 2018;217. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications-detail%02redirect/world-report-on-road-traffic-injury-preventio
2. Fanai S, Mohammadnezhad M. The perception of public transport drivers ( PTDs ) on preventing road traffic injury ( RTIs ) in Vanuatu : a qualitative study. Int J Qual Stud Health Well-being [Internet]. 2022;17(1):1–12. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/17482631.2022.2047253
3. Ahmed M, Patnaik J, Whitestone N, Hossain M, Alauddin M, Husain L, et al. Visual Impairment and Risk of Self-Reported Road Traffic Crashes Among Bus Drivers in Bangladesh. Asia-Pacific J Ophthalmol [Internet]. 2022;11(1):72–78. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/APO.0000000000000471
4. Bandyopadhyay S, Kumar Bandyopadhyay S, Biswas J, Saha M, Chowdhury D, Dey AK, et al. Journal of ophthalmic and Vision research | published by Wolters KluWer-medKnoW. 2018; Available from: www.jovr.org
5. Mashige K, Van Staden D. Prevalence of congenital colour vision deficiency among Black school children in Durban, South Africa. BMC Res Notes [Internet]. 2019;12(1):10–14. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-019-4374-1
6. World Health Organization. World report on road traffic injury prevention. Geneva WHO. 2004. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications-detail%02redirect/wo
7. Dairo M, Okechukwu-Nwankpa P, Nwankpa R. Survey on visual acuity among intra-city commercial vehicle drivers in Ibadan, southwestern Nigeria. J Pub Heal Afr. 2019;10:789. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6562253/
8. Bener A, Ahmad M, El-Tawil M, Al Bakr S. Visual impairment and motor vehicle accidents. Mid East J Emerg Med. 2004;4(1):39–43. Available from: https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:112206759
9. Adewole A, Ajumobi O, Gidado S. Health care seeking behaviour for visual dysfunction among motor vehicle drivers in Osun State, Southwest Nigeria. Pan Afr Med J. 2019;32:17–25. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31143322/
10. Kumar M, Mahaseth A, Parveen S, Rafeeq U, Chauhan L. Refractive errors among commercial drivers. Indian J Ophthalmol [Internet]. 2022;70(6):2112–2116. Available from: 10.4103/ijo.IJO_2510_21. PMID: 35647994
11. Ovenseri-Ogbomo G, Adofo M. Poor vision in schoolchildren in the Cape Coast municipality, Ghana. Afr Health Sci. 2011;11(3):377–383. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21572864/
12. Alvarez-peregrina C, Martinez-perez C, Villa-collar C, Miguel Á. Influence of Vision on Drivers : A Pilot Study. Int J Environ Res Public Heal [Internet]. 2021;18:1–9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/%0Aijerph182212116
13. Kwon J, Lee S. Factors Affecting Contrast Sensitivity in Intermittent Exotropia. Korean J Ophthalmol. 2020;34(5):392–397. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7597612/
14. Wang S, Sharma A, Dawson J, Rizzo M, Merickel J. Visual and Cognitive Impairments Differentially Affect Speed Limit Compliance in Older Drivers. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2021;69(5):1300–1308. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8274407/
15. Wood J. Nighttime driving: visual, lighting and visibility challenges. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 2020;40:187–201. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31875993/
16. Jones P, Ungewiss J, Eichinger P, Wörner M, Crabb D, Schiefer U. Contrast Sensitivity and Night Driving in Older People: Quantifying the Relationship Between Visual Acuity, Contrast Sensitivity, and Hazard Detection Distance in a Night-Time Driving Simulator. Front Hum Neurosci. 2022;16:1–10. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35966995/
17. Kimlin J, Black A, Djaja N, Wood J. Development and validation of a vision and night driving questionnaire. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 2016;36:465–476. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27350185/
18. Owens D, Wood J, Owens J. Effects of age and illumination on night driving: a road test. Hum Factors. 2007;49:1115–1131. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18074710/
19. Owsley C, McGwin G. Vision and driving. Vis Res [Internet]. 2010;50(23):2348–2361. Available from: 10.1016/j.visres.2010.05.021.
20. Gruber N, Mosimann U, Müri R, Nef T. Vision and night driving abilities of elderly drivers. Traffic Inj Prev. 2013;14:477–485. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23683029/
21. Ghasemi M, Hosein S, Yazdi H. Comparison of Visual Status of Iranian Military and Commercial Drivers Comparison of Visual Status of Iranian Military and Commercial Drivers. Iran Red Crescent Med J [Internet]. 2015;17(4):e19751. Available from: 10.5812/ircmj.17(4)2015.19751
22. van Rijn L, Nischler C, Michael R, Heine C, Coeckelbergh T, Wilhelm H, et al. Prevalence of impairment of visual function in European drivers. Acta Ophthalmol. 2011;89(2):124–131. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19832733/
23. Chung S, Legge G. Comparing the shape of contrast sensitivity functions for normal and low vision. Invest Ophthal_mol Vis Sci. 2016;57:198–207. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26795826/
24. Pang Y, Allen M, Robinson J, Frantz K. Contrast sensitivity of amblyopic eyes in children with myopic anisometropia. Clin Exp Optom. 2019;102:57–62. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30054940/
25. Haliza A, Muziman Syah M, Norliza M. Visual problems of new malaysian drivers. Malays Fam Physician [Internet]. 2010;5(2):95–98. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25606195/
26. Wood J, Owens D. Standard measures of visual acuity do not predict drivers’ recognition performance under day or night conditions. Optom Vis Sci. 2005;82:698–705. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16127335/
27. Hashemi H, Khabazkhoob M, Jafarzadehpur E, Emamian M, Shariati M, Fotouhi A. Contrast sensitivity evaluation in a population-based study in Shahroud, Iran. Ophthalmology. 2012;119(3):541–546. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22153705/
28. Wood J. Age and visual impairment decrease driving performance as measured on a closed-road circuit. Hum Factors. 2002;44(3):482–494. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12502165/
29. Johnson C, Wilkinson M. Vision and driving: the United States. J Neuroophthalmol [Internet]. 2010;30(2):170–176. Available from: 10.1097/WNO.0b013e3181df30d4
30. Oladehinde M, Adeoye A, Adegbehingbe B, Al E. Visual functions of commercial drivers in relation to road accidents in Nigeria. Indian J Occup Env Med. 2007;11:71–75. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3168100/
31. National Population Commission. Population Distribution by Sex, State, LGA & Senatorial district. Fed Repub Niger. 2006. Available from: file:///C:/Users/Manny/Downloads/Population%20Forecasts.pdf
32. Onaiwu DN. Rural-Urban Integration and Spatial Planning in Edo State, Nigeria. Ghana Journal of Geography. 2021; 13 (1): 50-62. Available from: https://www.ajol.info/index.php/gjg/article/view/207373
33. Cochran WG. Sampling Techniques [Internet]. 2nd Ed. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.; 1963. Available from: https://www.scirp.org/reference/ReferencesPapers?ReferenceID=1837525
34. Azuamah Y, Obeme-Ndukwe O, Esenwah E, Bazuaye K, Ikoro N, Agu G, et al. An Assessment of the Visual Acuity and Contrast Sensitivity of Commercial Vehicle Drivers in Rivers State , Nigeria. Int J Res [Internet]. 2014;1(9):1269–1275. Available from: https://journals.pen2print.org/index.php/ijr/article/view/781/734
35. National Eye Institute. Visual Functioning Questionnaire - 25 (VFQ-25). PB/IA. 2000;1–16. Available from: https://www.nei.nih.gov/learn-about-eye-health/outreach-resources/outreach-materials/visual-function-questionnaire-25
36. Moyegbone JE, Nwose E, Kio F, Agege E, Omatsuli T, Odoko J, et al. Prevalence and Pattern of Visual Impairment among Adult Population in Mangu Local Government Area of Plateau State, Nigeria. Ophthalmol Res An Int J. 2023;18(2):18–29. Available from: https://journalor.com/index.php/OR/article/view/381
37. WHO. World report on vision: Vision, eye conditions and vision impairment. World Heal Organ Switz. 2019; Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241516570
38. Flaxman S, Bourne R, Resnikoff S, Ackland P, Braithwaite T, Cicinelli M, et al. Global causes of blindness and distance vision impairment 1990–2020: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Glob Heal [Internet]. 2017 Dec 1 [cited 2020 May 12];5(12):e1221–e1234. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2214109X17303935
39. Moyegbone J, Nwose E, Anowa E, Clarke A, Odoko J, Agege A. Prevalence of Visual Impairment among Primary and Secondary School Children in Delta State, Nigeria. J Niger Optom Assoc [Internet]. 2023;25(1):42–53. Available from: https://dx.doi.org/10.4314/jnoa.v25i1.7
40. Almaliotis D, Almpanidou S, Chatzimbalis T. Correlation between color vision , visual acuity , contrast sensitivity and photostress recovery in the visually impaired : a cross-sectional study. Ann Med Surg. 2024;86:742–747. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10849460/
41. Pelli D, Robson J, Wilkins A. The design of a new letter chart for measuring contrast sensitivity. Clin Vis Sci. 1988;2(3):187–199. Available from: https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6021458
42. Kingsnorth A, Drew T, Grewal B, et al. Mobile app Aston contrast sen_sitivity test. Clin Exp Optom. 2016;99:350–355. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27291146/
43. Elliott D. Clinical Procedures in Primary Eye Care. Edinburgh: Elsevier/Butterworth Heinemann; 2007. Available from: https://shop.elsevier.com/books/clinical-procedures-in-primary-eye-care/elliott/978-0-7020-7789-0
44. Kobal N, Hawlina M. Comparison of visual requirements and regulations for obtaining a driving license in different European countries and some open questions on their adequacy. Front Hum Neurosci. 2022;16:1–18. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36248691/
45. Owsley C, Stalvey B, Wells J, Sloane M, McGwin G. Visual Risk Factors for Crash Involvement in Older Drivers with Cataract. Arch Ophthalmol. 2001;119:881–887. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11405840/
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Published
2025-09-27
How to Cite
Moyegbone, J. E., Oronsaye, E. E., Osaiyuwu, A. B., Osunu, P. T., Ebeigbe, J. A., & Nwose, E. U. (2025). Risk Factors and Prevalence of Contrast Sensitivity Impairment among Commercial Motor-Vehicle Drivers in Benin City Metropolis, Edo State, Nigeria. BioScientific Review, 7(3), 81-90. https://doi.org/10.32350/bsr.73.07
Section
Research Articles
Copyright (c) 2025 John Esimaje Moyegbone, Eghonghon Ehianata Oronsaye, Aghafekokhian Bose Osaiyuwu, Patricia Tonbra Osunu, Jennifer Aleye Ebeigbe, Ezekiel Uba Nwose
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