Construction of Islam and the Muslims in the USA: Evidence from Print Media
Abstract
Abstract Views: 480The US media features a negative rhetoric against the Muslims by posing them as a threat to the West. This article/study aims to explore how the US media constructs the image of Islam and the Muslims for the viewers. It also aims to analyze the perspective of the US writers about Islam and the Muslims. The paper analyzes 2,523 articles, descriptive of Islam and the Muslims and published in the US press from January to March 2017. It explores and describes the level to which the negative words and metaphors are used in the leading articles, which eventually constructs a negative image of the Muslims and Islam among the US citizenry. This negative portrayal by the US media points to the emergence and evolution of the patterns of representation of Islam, which are constitutive of an existential threat image. The study recommends the analysis of all media actors who speak / write about Islam and the Muslims at a broader level to understand the problem in its true perspective/essence with an aim to explore its prognostics.
Keywords: Islam, Muslims, Islamophobia, Terrorists, Terrorism
Downloads
References
Allen, Chris. Islamophobia. England: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2010.
Bazian, Hatem. "Islamophobia,“Clash of Civilizations,” and Forging a Post-Cold War Order!". Religions 9, no. 9 (2018): 282. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9090282
Benzehaf, Bouchaib. "Covering Islam in Western Media: From Islamic to Islamophobic Discourses." Journal of English Language Teaching and Linguistics 2, no. 1 (2017): 1-11. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21462/jeltl.v2i1.33
Bouma, Gary D. "Quest for Inclusion: Australia and Islamophobia." Fear of Muslims?: International Perspectives on Islamophobia, edited by Douglas Pratt and Rachel Woodlock, 67-78. Switzerland: Springer, 2016. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29698-2_5
Brons, Lajos L. "Othering, an Analysis." Transcience. A Journal of Global Studies 6, no. 1 (2015): 69-70.
Carvalho, Anabela. "Media (Ted) Discourse and Society: Rethinking the Framework of Critical Discourse Analysis." Journalism Studies 9, no. 2 (2008): 161-77. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14616700701848162
Cook, Michael A, and Patricia Crone. Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World. Cambridge University Press Cambridge, 1977.
Chumley, Cheryl K. "Hawaii's 'Muslim Ban 2.0' fight vs. Trump Lacking in Logic." The Washington Times, March 9, 2017.
Daniel, Norman. "Crusade Propaganda." In A History of the Crusades: The Impact of the Crusades on Europe edited by H. W. Hazard and N. P. Zacour, 39-97. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press., 1989.
—. Islam and the West: The Making of an Image. UK: Oneworld Publications Limited, 1960.
—. Islam and the West: The Making of an Image. UK: Oneworld Publications Limited, 1993.
Elgambri, Elzain. Islam in the British Broadsheets: The Impact of Orientalism on Representation of Islam. UK: Ithaca Press, 2008.
Gabriel, Yiannis. "The Other and Othering: A Short Introduction." Accessed July 12, 2019, http://www.yiannisgabriel.com/2012/09/the-other-and-othering-short.html.
Gotanda, Neil. "The Racialization of Islam in American Law." The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 637, no. 1 (2011): 184-95.
Green, Todd H. The Fear of Islam: An Introduction to Islamophobia in the West. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2015. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt12878h3
—. Presumed Guilty: Why We Shouldn't Ask Muslims to Condemn Terrorism. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2018.
Hafez, Kai. "The West and Islam in the Mass Media: Cornerstones for a New International Culture of Communication in the 21st Century." ZEI Discussion Papers: 2000, C 61 (2000):1-22.
Iqbal, Zafar. "Islamophobia or Islamophobias: Towards Developing a Process Model." Islamic Studies 49, no. 1 (2010): 81-101.
—. Islamophobia: History, Context and Deconstruction. India: SAGE, 2020.
Janosik, Daniel J. John of Damascus, First Apologist to the Muslims: The Trinity and Christian Apologetics in the Early Islamic Period. Eugene, Oregon: Pickwick Publishers, 2016.
Karim, Karim H. and Mike Gasher. "Islamic Peril: Media and Global Violence." Canadian Journal of Communication 27, no. 1 (2002): 99-101. https://doi.org/10.22230/cjc.2002v27n1a1279. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22230/cjc.2002v27n1a1279
Khadduri, Majid. "Islam and the Modern Law of Nations." American Journal of International Law 50, no. 2 (1956): 358-72. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2194954. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2194954
Kim, Brian. " Kim: Culture of Escalation." The Dartmouth: Dartmouth College (University Wire), January 31, 2017.
Kumar, Deepa. "Framing Islam: The Resurgence of Orientalism During the Bush Ii Era." Journal of Communication Inquiry 34, no. 3 (2010): 254-77. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0196859910363174
—. Islamophobia and the Politics of Empire. Chicago, Illinois: Haymarket Books, 2012.
Lewis, Bernard. Islam and the West. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.
Loomba, Ania. Colonialism/Postconialism: The New Critical Idiom. London: Routledge, 2015. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315751245
Mignolo, Walter D. The Darker Side of Western Modernity: Global Futures, Decolonial Options. Durham: Duke University Press, 2011. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv125jqbw
Miller, David. "Media Power and Class Power: Overplaying Ideology." In Media and Left, edited by Savaş Çoban, 44-66. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2015. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004272934_005
Moore, Kerry., Paul Mason, and Justin Matthew Wren Lewis. "Images of Islam in the UK: The Representation of British Muslims in the National Print News Media 2000-2008." Cardiff School of Journalism, Media and Cultural Studies (2008): 1-40.
Nacos, Brigitte., and Oscar Torres-Reyna. Fueling Our Fears: Stereotyping, Media Coverage, and Public Opinion of Muslim Americans. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 2007.
Navarro, Laura. "Islamophobia and Sexism: Muslim Women in the Western Mass Media." Human Architecture: Journal of the Sociology of Self-Knowledge 8, no. 2 (2010): 10.
Ogan, Christine., Lars Willnat, Rosemary Pennington, and Manaf Bashir. "The Rise of Anti-Muslim Prejudice: Media and Islamophobia in Europe and the United States." International Communication Gazette 76, no. 1 (2014): 27-46. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1748048513504048
Oswald, Debra L. "Understanding Anti‐Arab Reactions Post‐9/11: The Role of Threats, Social Categories, and Personal Ideologies1." Journal of Applied Social Psychology 35, no. 9 (2005): 1775-99. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2005.tb02195.x
Poole, Elizabeth Anne. "British Islam: Media Representations and Social Meanings." PhD diss., University of Leicester, 1999.
—. "Islamophobia." In Encyclopedia of Race and Ethnic Studies, edited by Ellis Cashmore, Michael Banton and James Jennings, 215-19. London: Routledge, 2004.
—. Reporting Islam: Media Representations and British Muslims. IB Tauris, 2002.
Quinn, Frederick. The Sum of All Heresies: The Image of Islam in Western Thought. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195325638.001.0001
Reitz, Joan M. Dictionary for Library and Information Science. Westport, USA: Libraries Unlimited, 2004.
Reynolds, Saundra K. "Media Representation of Islam and Muslims in Southern Appalachia." Master’s Thesis: East Tennessee State University, 2015.
Rhodes, D Bryan. "John Damascene in Context: An Examination of "the Heresy of the Ishmaelites" with Special Consideration Given to the Religious, Political, and Social Contexts During the Seventh and Eighth Century Arab Conquests." Master’s Thesis: Liberty Baptist Theological Seminary, 2009): 1-75.
Roberson, Barbara Allen. Middle East and Europe: The Power Deficit. London: Routledge, 2005. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203983140
Saeed, Tania. Islamophobia and Securitization: Religion, Ethnicity and the Female Voice. Switzerland: Springer, 2016. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-32680-1
Said, Edward W. Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World. New York: Vintage Books, 1997.
Shuja, Sharif M. "Islamic Revolution in Iran and the American Media." Pakistan Horizon 35, no. 3 (1982): 60-66.
Taylor, Howard C, and Bernard Berelson. "Comprehensive Family Planning Based on Maternal/Child Health Services: A Feasibility Study for a World Program." Studies in Family Planning 2, no. 2 (1971): 22-54.
van Dijk, Teun A. Ideology: A Multidisciplinary Approach. London: Sage Publication, 1998.
—. Racism and the Press. London: Routledge, 2015.
Weber, Robert Philip. Basic Content Analysis: Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences. Newbury Park, California: SAGE Publications, 1990. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412983488
Wheatcroft, Andrew. Infidels: A History of the Conflict between Christendom and Islam. New York: Random House, 2005.
Wodak, Ruth. "The Semiotics of Racism: A Critical Discourse-Historical Analysis." In Discourse, of Course: An Overview of Research in Discourse Studies, edited by Jan Renkema, 311-26. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2009. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1075/z.148.29wod
Yilmaz, Ihsan. The Nature of Islamophobia: Some Key Features. In Fear of Muslims?:International Perspectives on Islamophobia, edited by Douglas Pratt and Rachel Woodlock, 19-29. Switzerland: Springer, 2016. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29698-2_2
Zarnett, David. "Edward Said and the Iranian Revolution." Democratiya 9, no. Summer (2007): 43-53.
Copyright (c) 2021 Muhammad Tariq, Zafar Iqbal, Fazal Rahim Khan
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work’s authorship and initial publication in this journal.